Judaism

Judaism is the religion, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. It developed among the ancient Israelites in the Land of Israel and has been shaped over millennia by scripture, religious law, rabbinic interpretation and the experiences of Jewish communities across the world. Jewish identity can be religious, ethnic, cultural or a combination of these, and Jews differ in belief and observance.

The Torah is Judaism's central sacred text and forms the first part of the Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible. Rabbinic tradition interprets scripture through legal and ethical discussion preserved in works such as the Mishnah and Talmud. Jewish practice includes prayer, study, Sabbath observance, dietary laws and festivals. These practices connect communities to shared history while taking diverse forms across Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Mizrahi, Ethiopian and other traditions.

Judaism is both a living religious tradition and the heritage of a people whose history includes ancient kingdoms, exile, diaspora, persecution, cultural flourishing and modern national revival. Jewish communities have lived in the Middle East, North Africa, Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas. The establishment of Israel in 1948 created a sovereign state in the historic homeland while Jewish life continued throughout the diaspora. No single institution or movement represents all Jews.

Etymology

The English word Judaism derives through Greek and Latin forms from Judah, the name of an ancient Israelite tribe and kingdom. The term came to describe the religion and way of life associated with the Jewish people. Hebrew terms include Yahadut for Judaism and Yehudi for a Jew. The historical development of these words reflects the relationship among peoplehood, religious tradition and political identity.

In antiquity, the term Judean referred to people connected with the kingdom and province of Judah. Over time it acquired religious and communal meanings extending beyond residence in a particular territory. Jews living in diaspora communities remained part of a shared tradition even when they spoke local languages and were citizens or subjects of different states. The word “Jew” therefore has never referred only to religious practice in the narrow sense.

Biblical and Talmudic narrative

Jewish sacred history begins in the Torah with accounts of creation, the patriarchs and matriarchs, the covenant with Abraham, the Exodus from Egypt and the revelation of the Torah at Mount Sinai. The Israelites' journey to the Land of Israel and the establishment of a society governed by divine commandments form a central narrative. These accounts have shaped Jewish theology and identity, though scholars distinguish the religious text from historical reconstruction.

The biblical narrative describes the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem and the prophetic calls for justice and faithfulness. The Assyrian conquest of the northern kingdom and the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple in 586 BCE led to exile among part of Judah's population. The return under Persian rule and construction of the Second Temple established a renewed center of Jewish worship and communal life.

The Tanakh consists of Torah, Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). Its books include legal codes, historical narratives, poetry, wisdom literature and prophetic works. Jewish interpretation reads these texts through layers of commentary and debate. The written Torah is complemented in rabbinic tradition by the Oral Torah, a body of interpretation that explains how commandments apply in practice.

After the Second Temple was destroyed by Rome in 70 CE, Jewish religious life reorganized around prayer, study, communal institutions and observance at home. The rabbis developed legal and interpretive traditions that enabled Judaism to continue without the Temple's sacrificial rites. The Mishnah, compiled around the early third century, organized legal teachings; the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds developed extensive debate and commentary. The Talmud became foundational for later Jewish law and learning.

History of Judaism

Ancient Israelites and Second Temple Judaism

Ancient Israelite religion developed in the southern Levant amid the political and cultural worlds of the ancient Near East. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah maintained distinct political histories, and religious practice evolved over time. Biblical texts preserve traditions of worship centered on the God of Israel, covenant, law and prophetic teaching. Archaeological evidence and textual scholarship inform ongoing study of how these traditions developed.

The Babylonian conquest and exile formed a turning point. After the Persian Empire conquered Babylon, some Judeans returned and rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple. Jewish communities also remained in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, creating an enduring diaspora. During the Second Temple period, Jewish life included multiple groups and interpretations. Hellenistic rule, the Maccabean revolt and Hasmonean kingdom, and later Roman control shaped political and religious debate.

Under Roman rule, revolts in Judea culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE. A later revolt under Bar Kokhba in 132–135 CE was defeated, and Roman policies further transformed Jewish life in the region. Jews continued to live in Galilee and other parts of the land, while major centers of learning developed in the Land of Israel and Babylonia. Rabbinic Judaism became the principal framework for religious practice and authority.

Medieval Jewish communities

Jewish communities flourished in different periods under Muslim-ruled states, where Jews were generally recognized as protected non-Muslims but faced a status and obligations that varied over time and place. In the early Islamic centuries, Jewish scholars, physicians, merchants and translators participated in urban life. The Geonim of Babylonia helped shape religious law and education across the diaspora. Arabic-speaking Jewish intellectuals produced influential philosophy, poetry and biblical commentary.

In medieval Christian Europe, Jewish communities experienced legal restrictions, forced conversions, expulsions and episodic violence, alongside periods of relative security and economic participation. Jewish scholars developed Talmudic learning and produced major works of philosophy and law. The expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497 dispersed Sephardi communities across the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, Italy and the Netherlands. Jewish culture adapted to new settings while retaining religious and family traditions.

Jewish communities also developed in North Africa, Persia, Yemen, India and other regions, each with distinctive liturgy, legal customs and languages. The terms Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Mizrahi describe broad traditions but do not capture the full diversity within them. Jews maintained networks of trade, scholarship and correspondence across long distances. Local customs were shaped by surrounding societies, while communal institutions sustained religious education and mutual support.

Modern era

From the eighteenth century, emancipation and the Enlightenment changed Jewish life in Europe. Some Jews gained civil rights and entered universities, professions and political institutions. New religious movements emerged in response to modernity, including Reform Judaism and Orthodox responses that emphasized different approaches to tradition and change. Secular Jewish movements, including socialism and Zionism, offered additional forms of Jewish identity and collective action.

Antisemitism persisted despite emancipation. Pogroms in the Russian Empire, the Dreyfus Affair in France and racial nationalist movements showed that legal equality could remain fragile. The Holocaust destroyed much of European Jewry: Nazi Germany and its collaborators murdered six million Jews during the Second World War. Survivors rebuilt communities and migrated to Israel and other countries. Jewish life in the Middle East and North Africa also changed dramatically, as most historic communities in Arab states declined or dispersed during the twentieth century.

In 1948, Israel was established as a Jewish state in the Land of Israel. It became a major center of Jewish population, culture and religious life. Jewish communities also continued to thrive in North America, Europe, Latin America, Australia and elsewhere. Contemporary Judaism includes religious observance, secular and cultural identities, and debate about the relationship between diaspora communities and Israel.

Defining characteristics and principles of faith

Judaism is traditionally monotheistic, affirming one God and a covenantal relationship with the Jewish people. Jewish theology emphasizes divine unity, ethical responsibility, study and the observance of commandments. Beliefs about the Messiah, resurrection, providence and the afterlife have been interpreted in different ways. Judaism has no single universally binding creed, and Jewish thinkers have disagreed about how to summarize its central principles.

The covenant is a central concept: the Torah describes a relationship between God and Israel that carries obligations as well as identity. Jewish law, or halakha, addresses religious practice and ethical conduct. The commandments include ritual observance and social duties, such as honoring parents, giving charity, protecting the vulnerable and pursuing justice. Interpretation is an ongoing process, and Jewish legal authorities have differed over how ancient sources apply to new circumstances.

Study is a defining religious activity. Jews traditionally study Torah and rabbinic texts individually and collectively, often through debate. The interpretive tradition preserves multiple views rather than always resolving disagreement. This culture of argument has shaped Jewish education and communal life. Prayer, acts of kindness and repentance are also central practices, especially during the High Holy Days.

Jewish identity may be acquired by birth or conversion according to Jewish law, while civil and communal definitions differ among movements and states. Some Jews are observant, others identify culturally or ethnically, and many combine multiple forms of belonging. The diversity does not make Jewish identity arbitrary: it reflects a people with shared historical connections and evolving communal standards.

Religious texts

The Tanakh is the Hebrew Bible and comprises three divisions: Torah, Prophets and Writings. The Torah contains the Five Books of Moses and is read publicly in synagogue in an annual cycle. The Prophets include historical and prophetic books, while the Writings include Psalms, Proverbs, Job, the scrolls read on festivals and other works. Jewish interpretation considers the text in Hebrew and through a long tradition of translation and commentary.

The Mishnah, compiled around 200 CE, organizes rabbinic legal traditions into six orders. The Gemara records later discussion of the Mishnah, producing the Jerusalem Talmud and the more extensive Babylonian Talmud. Together, Mishnah and Gemara form the Talmud. The text is structured as argument, case analysis and interpretation, and it became central to Jewish legal study.

Other foundational works include the Midrash, which interprets biblical texts; the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, a systematic code of Jewish law; and the Shulchan Aruch, a major legal compendium. Kabbalistic works, particularly the Zohar, developed mystical interpretations. Prayer books, legal responsa and commentaries continue to shape observance and thought. Authority is distributed across texts, scholars, communal custom and religious movements rather than vested in one global hierarchy.

Jewish identity

Jewish identity is multidimensional. Judaism is a religion, but Jews are also commonly understood as an ethnic and historical people. Some Jews practice religious rituals and observe halakha; others identify through family, culture, language or shared history without religious belief. Jewish communities include people of many racial backgrounds and nationalities. No single appearance, language or level of observance defines a Jew.

Conversion is recognized in Jewish tradition, though standards differ among religious movements. Converts join the Jewish people and assume Jewish religious and communal obligations. Different authorities may disagree about the recognition of particular conversions, especially across denominational lines. These questions affect personal status, marriage and citizenship in some jurisdictions.

Jewish diasporic communities developed distinctive cultures. Ashkenazi Jews historically lived in Central and Eastern Europe and often spoke Yiddish; Sephardi Jews trace heritage to Iberian communities and developed Ladino traditions; Mizrahi Jews come from Middle Eastern and North African communities with diverse languages and customs. Ethiopian, Indian, Persian and other Jewish communities have their own histories. These identities overlap and are not exhaustive categories.

Jewish religious movements

Orthodox Judaism generally holds that Jewish law is binding and rooted in divine revelation, while allowing interpretation through established legal methods. Orthodox communities vary widely, from modern Orthodox institutions engaged with secular education to Haredi communities emphasizing religious separation and intensive study. There is no single central Orthodox authority for Jews worldwide.

Reform Judaism emerged in nineteenth-century Europe and emphasized adapting religious practice to modern life. Reform communities have differed over the authority of halakha, liturgy, gender equality and Jewish identity. Conservative Judaism developed a position that regards Jewish law as binding while permitting historical development and scholarly interpretation. Reconstructionist Judaism understands Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. Other movements and independent communities contribute to modern Jewish life.

Religious movements differ over worship, conversion, education, gender roles and the interpretation of scripture. Many Jews do not affiliate with a denomination. In Israel, religious institutions and state law have specific relationships that differ from arrangements in diaspora countries. The interaction between religious authority, democratic politics and personal status remains a major public issue.

Jewish observances

The Sabbath, or Shabbat, begins Friday evening and ends after nightfall on Saturday. It commemorates creation and liberation and provides a weekly period of rest, prayer and family gathering. Observance varies, but traditional practice includes lighting candles, reciting blessings, attending synagogue and refraining from certain forms of work. The Sabbath shapes the Jewish calendar and the rhythm of communal life.

Jewish dietary laws, or kashrut, specify permitted foods and methods of preparation. Observant Jews may avoid pork and shellfish, separate meat and dairy, and seek kosher certification. Practices vary by individual and movement. Dietary observance connects daily life to religious law and communal identity.

The Jewish calendar includes festivals that recall historical events and agricultural cycles. Passover commemorates the Exodus from Egypt; Shavuot marks the giving of the Torah and harvest; Sukkot recalls the wilderness journey and celebrates the harvest. Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur form the High Holy Days, focused on repentance, judgment and renewal. Hanukkah recalls the rededication of the Second Temple, while Purim celebrates deliverance in the Book of Esther.

Life-cycle rituals include brit milah, naming ceremonies, bar and bat mitzvah, marriage and mourning practices. Jewish burial traditions emphasize respect for the dead, and the mourning period includes communal support for bereaved families. These observances combine religious law, family custom and local traditions and can vary across communities.

Community leadership

Jewish communities have historically organized around synagogues, study houses, charitable bodies and communal councils. Rabbis serve as teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition, but their authority depends on community recognition and varies by movement. Cantors lead liturgical music, while educators and communal professionals support religious and cultural life.

Unlike some religions, Judaism has no single global ecclesiastical hierarchy. Local communities and movements make decisions about worship, education, conversion and communal policy. In Israel, the Chief Rabbinate has official roles in some areas of Jewish personal status, while other religious and secular institutions also shape public life. Diaspora communities have their own organizational structures and legal contexts.

Jewish communal leadership has included laypeople, women and civic organizations, with their roles changing over time. Synagogue boards, federations, schools and charities sustain community life. Leadership debates often concern inclusion, religious authority, relations with Israel and responses to antisemitism. Diversity of governance reflects the broader plurality of Jewish identity.

Judaism and ecology

Jewish texts and law include teachings about stewardship, limits on destruction and care for living creatures. The principle of bal tashchit, often understood as a prohibition against needless waste or destruction, is applied by contemporary Jewish thinkers to environmental concerns. Biblical agricultural laws and the sabbatical year also connect religious practice to land use and rest.

Jewish environmental movements interpret these sources in light of climate change, conservation and food systems. Communities have adopted sustainability initiatives in synagogues, schools and ritual practice. Interpretations differ, and environmental ethics form one part of a broader Jewish discussion about responsibility to God, humanity and the natural world.

Judaism and other religions

Judaism shares historical and textual connections with Christianity and Islam. Christianity emerged from the Jewish world of the Second Temple period and adopted the Hebrew Bible as its Old Testament, while developing distinct theological claims about Jesus. Islam recognizes many biblical figures and views itself as part of a monotheistic tradition, though it differs from Judaism in scripture, law and theology.

Relations among Jews, Christians and Muslims have varied widely. They include intellectual exchange, shared civic life and periods of coexistence, as well as coercion, discrimination and violence. The status of Jews under Christian and Muslim rulers differed by place and era. Historical analysis should resist broad claims that any one religious civilization was uniformly tolerant or uniformly hostile.

Modern interfaith dialogue often addresses religious differences, shared ethical concerns and the legacy of persecution. Jewish participants may engage from theological, civic or personal perspectives. Dialogue does not require erasing differences or overlooking historical injustice; it can create means to understand beliefs and address contemporary prejudice.

Criticism

Judaism, like other religious traditions, has been subject to theological, philosophical and political criticism. Critics have challenged particular doctrines, legal practices, communal boundaries or the role of religion in public life. Jewish thinkers have also debated these questions internally, producing reform movements, secular philosophies and new interpretations. Criticism of religious ideas is distinct from hostility toward Jews as a people.

Historically, anti-Jewish polemics often misrepresented Jewish beliefs or assigned collective guilt to Jews. Such polemics contributed to restrictions and violence. Contemporary discussion should distinguish legitimate disagreement with religious teachings from stereotypes that portray Jews as collectively malicious, alien or conspiratorial. Clear attention to sources and context helps preserve open debate without repeating false accusations.