Iraq

Iraq is a federal republic in Western Asia, occupying much of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It borders Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Syria, with a short coastline on the Persian Gulf. The country includes fertile river valleys, northern mountains, western desert and southern marshes. Baghdad, the capital, is the largest city and the centre of national government.

Iraq has a long history of urban civilization and empire. Ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian societies developed in the region, while Baghdad became a major centre of learning under the Abbasid Caliphate. Modern Iraq emerged from Ottoman territories under a British mandate and became independent in 1932. Its later history has included monarchy, coups, Ba’athist dictatorship, wars, foreign occupation and the establishment of a federal political system.

Contemporary Iraq is ethnically and religiously diverse. Arabs form the majority, and Kurds are the largest ethnic minority; Turkmen, Assyrians, Yazidis, Shabaks and other communities also live in the country. Most residents are Muslims, divided principally between Shi'a and Sunni traditions, with Christian, Yazidi, Mandaean and other minorities. The constitution recognizes Arabic and Kurdish as official languages and defines Iraq as a federal parliamentary republic.

Etymology

The origin of the name Iraq is debated. It is often connected to the ancient city of Uruk, known in Sumerian as Uruk and in later languages through related forms. Other explanations derive the name from Middle Persian or Arabic words describing a lowland or coastal region. Medieval geographers used “Iraq” for areas around lower Mesopotamia, though its precise boundaries varied between authors and periods.

The modern state name is the Republic of Iraq. The name was applied to a political unit assembled after the First World War from former Ottoman provinces. Modern Iraq’s borders include regions with different historical affiliations, from the northern Kurdish highlands to the southern marshes and Gulf coast. The name’s use therefore reflects both older geographic traditions and the twentieth-century formation of a state.

History

Bronze and Iron Ages

Southern Mesopotamia was one of the world’s earliest centres of urban life. Sumerian cities such as Uruk, Ur and Eridu developed writing, temple institutions, irrigation agriculture and long-distance trade during the fourth and third millennia BCE. The cuneiform writing system began as a method of record keeping and became a vehicle for administration, literature and scholarship. City-states competed for land and water, while rulers built canals, temples and defensive walls.

Akkadian rulers united much of Mesopotamia in the third millennium BCE. Later, Babylonian kingdoms made the region a political and cultural centre. Hammurabi’s legal code is among the best-known texts from ancient Babylon. The northern city of Assur gave its name to Assyria, an empire that expanded across the Near East through military campaigns and provincial administration. Assyrian capitals included Nimrud and Nineveh, near modern Mosul. Mosul stands close to the ancient imperial centre of Nineveh.

Babylonian and Assyrian societies developed sophisticated astronomy, mathematics, medicine and literature. The Epic of Gilgamesh, preserved on cuneiform tablets, is one of the world’s oldest surviving literary works. The region’s irrigation networks supported agriculture but required coordinated maintenance. Control of canals and river land was central to political power. Successive empires inherited and adapted administrative systems, while deportations and population movements reshaped the demographic landscape.

Antiquity and medieval period

The Neo-Babylonian Empire rose after Assyria’s collapse and was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in 539 BCE. Alexander the Great defeated the Persians, and after his death the region became part of the Seleucid realm. Parthian and Sasanian empires later governed Mesopotamia, often using Ctesiphon as a capital. The Tigris-Euphrates corridor remained a strategic frontier between Persian empires and Rome or Byzantium.

Arab Muslim armies conquered the Sasanian Empire in the seventh century. The Abbasid Caliphate established Baghdad in 762, and the city grew into a major centre of administration, trade, scholarship and arts. The House of Wisdom and other institutions supported translation and scientific work, while merchants linked Iraq with the Mediterranean, Central Asia, India and East Africa. Baghdad’s political influence declined after the Mongol sack of 1258. The region later came under Mongol, Turkoman and Persian dynasties before the Ottoman Empire consolidated control.

Early modern and Ottoman periods

Ottoman and Safavid empires contested Iraq for centuries. Baghdad changed hands several times before Ottoman rule became more stable in the seventeenth century. Ottoman administration organized the region into provinces centred on Baghdad, Basra and Mosul. Local tribal leaders, religious authorities and urban notables mediated relations with imperial governors. Trade through Basra connected inland routes to the Persian Gulf, while Baghdad remained an important religious and commercial city.

In the nineteenth century, Ottoman reforms sought to centralize administration, collect taxes and expand state control. New transport and communication networks altered trade and mobility. European influence increased through commerce, archaeology and diplomacy. The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers; British forces captured Baghdad in 1917 and occupied the former Ottoman provinces that became Iraq.

Mandate, monarchy and republic

After the First World War, Britain received a League of Nations mandate over Iraq. The 1920 Iraqi revolt opposed foreign rule, and British authorities established a monarchy under Faisal I. Iraq became formally independent in 1932 but retained close British ties. The state incorporated the former provinces of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul, bringing together different regional and communal populations. Oil discoveries and foreign concessions became increasingly important to national revenue.

A military coup in 1958 overthrew the monarchy and established a republic. Subsequent coups and factional struggles destabilized the government. The Ba’ath Party seized power in 1968, and Saddam Hussein became president in 1979. His government used oil revenues to expand infrastructure, education and state employment while building an extensive security apparatus. Political opposition was suppressed, and the regime conducted campaigns against Kurdish communities and other perceived opponents.

Ba’athist Iraq and regional wars

Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, beginning an eight-year war that caused enormous casualties and economic damage. The conflict involved trench warfare, missile attacks, chemical weapons and attacks on shipping in the Persian Gulf. Saddam Hussein’s government received support from several foreign states despite its use of chemical weapons against Iranian forces and Iraqi Kurds. The war ended in 1988 without major territorial change, leaving Iraq deeply indebted.

In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. A U.S.-led international coalition expelled Iraqi forces in the 1991 Gulf War. The United Nations imposed sanctions and weapons inspections, while uprisings in southern Iraq and the north were violently suppressed. A no-fly zone was established over parts of northern Iraq, and Kurdish parties developed a self-governing administration there after Iraqi forces withdrew. The sanctions and destruction of infrastructure contributed to severe hardship through the 1990s.

Post-invasion Iraq

A U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq in 2003, overthrowing Saddam Hussein. The occupation dismantled much of the state and military, creating a security vacuum. Insurgency, sectarian violence and attacks by al-Qaeda in Iraq caused mass casualties and displacement. A new constitution approved in 2005 established a federal parliamentary republic and recognized the Kurdistan Region. Coalition forces withdrew in 2011, though political tensions and militia activity remained.

In 2014, Islamic State captured Mosul and large areas of northern and western Iraq. Iraqi forces, Kurdish forces, Shi'a militias and an international coalition fought to retake territory. The campaign culminated in the defeat of Islamic State’s territorial control in 2017, but the group continued as an insurgency. The conflict displaced millions, damaged cities and destroyed heritage sites. Reconstruction and return of displaced residents have been uneven.

Protests beginning in 2019 challenged corruption, unemployment, foreign influence and inadequate public services. Security forces and armed groups killed and injured demonstrators. Prime Minister Adel Abdul Mahdi resigned, and successive governments faced pressure to reform the political system. The 2022 parliamentary election produced prolonged negotiations before a government was formed under Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani.

Period of relative stability

Since 2022, Iraq has experienced relative improvement in political, security and economic conditions compared with the height of insurgency. The government has pursued diplomatic engagement with neighbouring states and promoted infrastructure projects, including a development corridor intended to connect the Persian Gulf with Turkey and Europe. Oil remains the dominant source of public revenue, while officials have sought to expand private-sector activity and diversify the economy.

Heavy rainfall in 2024 improved strategic water reserves and eased some drought pressure, though water shortages remain a structural concern. The state established the Iraq Development Fund in 2023 to support private investment and projects. Iraq’s political stability remains vulnerable to competition among parties and armed groups, dependence on oil prices, disputes between Baghdad and the Kurdistan Regional Government, and regional tensions. Relative calm has not removed governance, employment and service-delivery challenges.

Geography

Iraq occupies a transition zone between the mountains of Anatolia and Iran, the Syrian steppe and the Arabian desert. The northern and northeastern areas include highlands and valleys; the central region contains the Tigris and Euphrates plains; and the south includes marshes and a narrow Gulf coastline. The Tigris flows through Baghdad, while the Euphrates passes through western and central Iraq. The rivers converge near the Shatt al-Arab, which flows toward the Gulf.

The Mesopotamian plain is fertile where irrigation is reliable but vulnerable to salinity, flooding and water shortages. Southern marshes support distinctive wetland habitats and traditional communities. The west is largely desert plateau, while mountain areas near Turkey and Iran have cooler conditions and snow in winter. Iraq borders Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Syria. Its short coastline includes the port city of Basra and the maritime terminal at Umm Qasr.

Climate and biodiversity

Iraq has an arid to semi-arid climate, with hot summers and cool or cold winters. Temperatures are highest in the southern plains, while northern elevations experience more precipitation and occasional snow. Rainfall is concentrated in winter and varies sharply across the country. Drought, rising temperatures and reduced river flows have increased pressure on agriculture and urban water systems.

Habitats include desert, steppe, riverine woodland, marshes and mountain ecosystems. The Mesopotamian Marshes were drained in large part under Saddam Hussein’s government and later partially restored, though they remain threatened by upstream dams, drought and salinity. Wildlife includes migratory birds, mammals adapted to arid zones and species tied to wetlands. Pollution, invasive species, overgrazing and conflict have damaged biodiversity.

Government and politics

Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic under the 2005 constitution. The Council of Representatives is elected by proportional representation and selects the president, who formally nominates a prime minister backed by the largest parliamentary bloc. The prime minister heads the government and commands the armed forces. Political bargaining among parties and communities is central to forming cabinets. By convention, the presidency has gone to a Kurd, the premiership to a Shi'a Arab and the speakership to a Sunni Arab, though this distribution is not prescribed in the constitution.

The federal system recognizes the Kurdistan Region and allows other regions to be formed under constitutional procedures. The Kurdistan Regional Government has its own parliament, ministries and security forces. Disputes between Baghdad and Erbil concern oil exports, budget transfers, disputed territories and the division of constitutional powers. Iraq’s federal institutions have also been criticized for patronage, corruption and weak checks on executive authority. The constitution provides for a Federation Council, an upper legislative chamber that has not been established.

Law, security and foreign relations

Iraq’s legal system combines civil law, constitutional provisions and Islamic legal principles. The constitution establishes Islam as the official religion while guaranteeing freedom of belief and practice. The Federal Supreme Court reviews constitutionality and resolves certain disputes between federal and regional authorities. Personal-status law and local practice reflect religious and communal diversity. Courts face challenges including political pressure, corruption, security threats and limited institutional capacity.

The Iraqi Security Forces include the army, federal police and counterterrorism units. The Popular Mobilization Forces, formed during the fight against Islamic State, encompass armed groups with differing political and foreign relationships. Some units have been integrated into the state security framework, while questions remain over command, accountability and independent influence. Kurdish Peshmerga forces are controlled by the Kurdistan Region, though efforts have sought greater coordination with federal forces.

Iraq’s foreign policy balances relations with the United States, Iran, Arab states and Turkey. The country maintains close economic and political ties with Iran while also receiving security and economic support from the United States. Turkey is a major trading partner and has conducted operations against the PKK in northern Iraq. Baghdad seeks regional diplomacy and has hosted talks between rival states. Iraq’s position is complicated by the activity of armed groups and by its dependence on oil exports and imported energy.

Human rights and administration

Human-rights concerns include arbitrary detention, torture, enforced disappearance, restrictions on journalists and violence against protesters. Islamic State committed mass atrocities, including executions, enslavement and attacks on religious minorities. Government forces and some armed groups have also faced allegations of abuses. Accountability and reconciliation remain difficult because institutions are politicized and communities have differing experiences of the conflict.

Iraq is divided into governorates, which are subdivided into districts and subdistricts. Baghdad is the capital governorate and the country’s largest metropolitan centre. Other major cities include Basra, Mosul, Erbil, Najaf and Kirkuk. Local governments provide services but depend heavily on national transfers and oil revenues. Administrative boundaries and control in disputed areas are contested between federal and Kurdish authorities.

Economy

Iraq has one of the world’s largest proven petroleum reserves, and oil exports dominate government revenues. The state employs a large share of the formal workforce and finances public services through oil income. This dependence makes budgets vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices. The private sector includes trade, construction, agriculture, transport, communications and small manufacturing, but faces unreliable electricity, corruption and limited access to credit.

Economic recovery after war has been uneven. Infrastructure damage, displacement and insecurity constrained investment, while public spending has helped restore some services and construction. The government has promoted private-sector growth and transport projects to connect the Gulf with regional markets. Unemployment, especially among young people, and the reliance on public-sector jobs remain major challenges. Regional inequality is pronounced between oil-producing areas, cities and rural districts.

Tourism, transport, energy and water

Iraq has important religious and archaeological tourism sites. Najaf and Karbala attract Shi'a Muslim pilgrims, while Babylon, Ur, Hatra and ancient Assyrian sites preserve the history of early civilizations. Security improvements have enabled some tourism to resume, but infrastructure and preservation remain limited. Damage from conflict and looting has affected museums and archaeological locations.

Roads and railways connect Baghdad with major cities and neighbouring countries, though decades of conflict and underinvestment have left gaps. Basra is the principal southern port, and Umm Qasr handles much of Iraq’s maritime trade. Baghdad International Airport and regional airports support passenger and cargo links. The Iraq–Europe Development Road project aims to create a transport corridor from the Gulf through Iraq toward Turkey.

Oil production and exports are centred in the south and around Kirkuk, with pipelines and terminals connecting fields to markets. Natural gas is produced alongside oil, but Iraq has historically flared substantial quantities and imported gas and electricity. Energy-sector reform focuses on reducing flaring, improving generation and expanding transmission. Water supply is increasingly strained by upstream dams, drought, pollution and inefficient irrigation. The Tigris and Euphrates are shared international rivers, making water management a diplomatic as well as domestic issue.

Demographics

Iraq’s population is concentrated in the river valleys and major cities. Baghdad is the largest urban centre; Basra anchors the south, Mosul the north, and Erbil the Kurdistan Region. Population estimates have grown rapidly, but conflict and displacement complicate counts. Rural-to-urban migration has expanded informal settlements and increased demand for housing, schools, water and electricity.

Ethnic groups, languages and religion

Arabs form most of the population, and Kurds are the largest minority. Other communities include Turkmen, Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidis, Shabaks and Mandaeans. Many communities have experienced displacement, discrimination or targeted violence, particularly during the campaigns by Islamic State. Ethnic and religious identities do not always align, and mixed cities such as Kirkuk have complex histories of migration and competing claims.

Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Kurdish is used principally in the Kurdistan Region and Kurdish communities elsewhere. Turkmen, Syriac, Armenian and other languages are spoken by minority populations. Iraqi Arabic dialects differ by region, and English is used in business and higher education. Language policy and schooling reflect both national institutions and regional autonomy.

Most Iraqis are Muslims, divided chiefly between Shi'a and Sunni communities. Christians belong to several churches, including Chaldean Catholic, Syriac Orthodox and Assyrian traditions. Yazidis, Mandaeans and other smaller religious groups maintain distinct practices. The constitution establishes Islam as the official religion and guarantees freedom of religious belief and practice. Religious identity has shaped political representation and conflict, but communities contain varied social and political views.

Displacement, health and education

Wars and internal conflict produced repeated waves of refugees and internally displaced people. Many families have returned to their home regions, but some remain displaced because homes and infrastructure were destroyed or because of insecurity. Iraq also hosts refugees from neighbouring countries. The diaspora includes Iraqis who left during dictatorship, sanctions and post-2003 violence, and remains connected through remittances and political engagement.

Healthcare is delivered through public and private facilities. The health system has faced shortages of staff, medicines and equipment, with disparities between cities and rural areas. Conflict, pollution and limited water sanitation have affected public health. Education expanded substantially in the twentieth century, but war and instability damaged schools and interrupted attendance. Universities in Baghdad, Basra, Mosul and Erbil continue to educate large student populations, although funding, infrastructure and academic freedom remain concerns.

Culture

Iraqi culture draws on Mesopotamian, Arab, Kurdish, Persian, Turkic and Islamic traditions. The region’s ancient heritage includes monumental cities, cuneiform tablets and early legal and literary texts. Baghdad’s Abbasid legacy remains important to Arabic scholarship, while Kurdish communities maintain distinct literary and musical traditions. Religious pilgrimage, family networks and local festivals shape everyday cultural life.

Art, architecture and literature

Ancient architecture includes ziggurats, palaces and city walls, while Islamic periods contributed mosques, shrines, schools and markets. Baghdad’s historic urban fabric was damaged by conflict and redevelopment. Modern architecture combines local forms with international design. Iraq’s museums and archaeological institutions preserve objects from Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Islamic eras, though looting and wartime damage have caused losses.

Iraqi literature includes poetry, novels, theatre and scholarship in Arabic and Kurdish. Classical Arabic poetry and modernist movements have had influential Iraqi voices. Writers have addressed dictatorship, war, exile, urban life and cultural memory. Literature and journalism have faced censorship and danger, while diaspora authors have carried Iraqi writing to international audiences.

Music, media, cuisine and sport

Music ranges from maqam traditions and religious recitation to Kurdish folk forms and contemporary popular genres. The Iraqi maqam is a classical vocal tradition accompanied by instruments such as the santur and joza. Kurdish music uses regional rhythms and dance forms, including group line dances at celebrations. Years of conflict disrupted institutions and performance spaces, though musical life continued in communities and diaspora.

Iraq’s media includes public broadcasters, private television, newspapers and digital outlets. Press freedom has expanded compared with the Ba’athist period but journalists remain vulnerable to threats, political pressure and attacks. Cuisine varies across regions and includes rice, grains, fish, lamb, vegetables and dates. Masgouf, a grilled river fish dish, is associated with Baghdad and the Tigris. Football is the most popular sport, and Iraq’s national team won the AFC Asian Cup in 2007. Basketball, wrestling and athletics also have followings.