Iran–Israel Conflict

The Iran–Israel conflict is a long-running confrontation involving direct attacks, covert operations and armed groups supported by Iran. For many years, the two states avoided sustained direct war, while Israel targeted Iranian military infrastructure and weapons transfers in Syria and Iran backed organizations hostile to Israel. The conflict escalated sharply in 2024, when Iran launched a direct drone and missile attack on Israel and Israel later struck Iranian military targets.

The April 2024 exchange followed an Israeli strike on a building in Damascus that killed senior Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps officers. Iran launched hundreds of drones and missiles toward Israel; Israel, the United States and other partners intercepted most of them. In October, Iran launched another missile barrage after Israeli operations killed senior leaders of Hezbollah and Hamas. Israel responded with strikes on Iranian military sites.

In June 2025, the confrontation escalated into a twelve-day war. Israel attacked Iranian nuclear and military facilities and killed senior commanders and nuclear scientists. Iran retaliated with missiles and drones against Israel. The United States struck Iranian nuclear facilities near the end of the campaign, and a ceasefire halted the direct fighting. These episodes exposed the potential for regional escalation and left questions about Iran's nuclear program, deterrence and the durability of the ceasefire unresolved.

Background

Iran and Israel had maintained relations before Iran's 1979 revolution. The new Iranian revolutionary government rejected Israel's legitimacy and supported armed organizations that fought Israel. Israel viewed Iran's nuclear program, missile development and support for regional groups as major security threats. Diplomatic relations were severed after the revolution, and public rhetoric became openly hostile.

Iran developed relationships with armed groups, including the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps across the region, including Hezbollah in Lebanon, Hamas and Islamic Jihad Movement in Gaza, and militias in Iraq and Syria. These groups differed in leadership and local objectives, though Iran provided varying levels of financial, military and technical support. Israel conducted air strikes against weapons shipments and Iranian positions in Syria, seeking to prevent advanced weapons transfers and Iranian entrenchment near its borders.

The conflict also centered on Iran's nuclear program. Iran said its program was peaceful, while Israel argued that the possibility of Iranian nuclear weapons posed an existential danger. The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action imposed restrictions and inspections in exchange for sanctions relief. The United States withdrew from the agreement in 2018, and Iran later expanded uranium enrichment beyond the deal's limits. Israel opposed the agreement and maintained that Iran must not acquire nuclear weapons.

For years, the confrontation was described as a shadow war. It involved cyber operations, sabotage, assassinations, attacks on shipping and air strikes in third countries. Both sides sought to impose costs while avoiding an open war. The Gaza war that began after the 7 October 2023 attacks intensified the activities of Iran-aligned groups and raised the risk that Israel and Iran would confront each other directly.

Direct exchanges in 2024

April attack

On 1 April 2024, an Israeli strike destroyed an Iranian diplomatic compound building in Damascus and killed senior IRGC officers, including Mohammad Reza Zahedi. Iran said the building had diplomatic status and described the strike as an attack on its sovereignty. Israel did not initially comment. The killing prompted Iran to threaten retaliation.

On the night of 13–14 April, Iran launched more than 300 drones, cruise missiles and ballistic missiles toward Israel. The attack was the first direct Iranian military assault on Israeli territory. Iran said it was retaliation and that the operation had concluded. Israel's air defenses, supported by the United States, Britain, France and Jordan, intercepted most incoming weapons. A limited number reached Israeli territory, causing minor damage and injuring a child.

The scale of interception demonstrated the value of allied coordination and layered missile defense. U.S. forces and other partners destroyed drones and missiles outside Israel, while Israeli systems intercepted additional weapons. Iran's attack was unprecedented in scale but caused far less damage than its arsenal could potentially inflict. Leaders on both sides faced pressure to respond while avoiding a wider war.

Israel conducted a limited strike near Isfahan on 19 April. Iranian officials reported limited damage and did not publicly attribute the incident to Israel at first. The measured response helped prevent immediate escalation, though the exchange ended neither the shadow conflict nor the threat of further attacks.

July and October

In July 2024, Hamas political leader Ismail Haniyeh was killed in Tehran while attending the inauguration of Iran's president. Iran blamed Israel and vowed a response. Israel did not publicly claim responsibility. The killing on Iranian soil heightened pressure on the government to retaliate and underscored the reach of covert operations.

In September, Israeli strikes in Lebanon killed Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah and other senior figures. On 1 October, Iran launched a large missile attack on Israel, citing the deaths of Nasrallah, Haniyeh and Iranian officers. Israeli air defenses and allied forces intercepted many missiles, but impacts caused damage at military sites and in populated areas. One local Arab resident of the Ramallah-based Arab administration's territory was killed by falling debris.

On 26 October, Israel launched air strikes against Iranian military facilities, including air-defense systems and missile production sites. Israel said the operation was a response to Iran's attacks and targeted military capabilities. Iran reported damage and deaths among security personnel. Israel avoided striking nuclear facilities and oil infrastructure, limiting the operation's immediate economic effects.

Twelve-Day War, 2025

On 13 June 2025, Israel launched a broad attack on Iranian nuclear and military infrastructure. Israeli operations targeted nuclear facilities, missile systems, air defenses and senior commanders. Iranian officials and scientists were killed. Israel described the operation as necessary to stop Iran from approaching a nuclear weapon capability; Iran condemned it as an act of aggression and launched retaliatory attacks.

Iran fired ballistic missiles and drones at Israeli cities and military sites. Israeli air defenses intercepted many incoming weapons, but some penetrated defenses and caused deaths and damage. Israel continued strikes across Iran, including in Tehran and around strategic facilities. Civilian infrastructure was affected, and residents fled areas under attack.

The United States joined the campaign on 22 June, striking nuclear sites at Fordow, Natanz and Isfahan with bunker-busting bombs and cruise missiles. President Donald Trump said the operation had severely damaged Iran's nuclear program. Iran condemned the strikes and attacked the U.S. Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar; the attack caused no reported American casualties. Qatar and other regional governments sought to prevent further escalation.

A ceasefire took effect on 24 June after twelve days of fighting. Both sides claimed success. The physical damage to Iran's nuclear infrastructure and the program's future remained uncertain. International inspectors faced challenges assessing the status of nuclear material and facilities. The conflict raised concerns about the risk of renewed strikes and the weakening of non-proliferation safeguards.

Impact and aftermath

The 2024 exchanges caused limited direct fatalities compared with the scale of weapons launched, largely because of interception and advance warning. The 2025 war caused substantially greater casualties in Iran and Israel, including military personnel and civilians. Exact figures varied among official sources and independent reporting, and conditions during fighting limited verification.

Israeli strikes damaged military facilities, air defenses and parts of Iran's nuclear infrastructure. Iranian missiles damaged buildings and military installations in Israel. Civilian populations experienced deaths, injuries, evacuation and disruption to daily life. The attacks showed that distance and geography did not prevent direct strikes between the two states.

Iran's nuclear program remained a core strategic concern. Israel argued that military action had delayed Iran's ability to build a nuclear weapon. Iranian officials said the program would continue and that attacks strengthened the case for deterrence. The International Atomic Energy Agency sought access to facilities and clarity about nuclear material, while diplomatic negotiations faced renewed obstacles.

The conflict weakened some Iran-aligned groups and disrupted their networks, but it did not eliminate them. Hezbollah suffered major losses in its conflict with Israel, and armed factions in Iraq and Yemen continued to operate. Iran's regional influence became more contested, while Israel's military reach was demonstrated across a wide theater.

Casualties

In April 2024, Iranian weapons killed no one in Israel directly, though falling debris injured people and damaged property. The October exchange also produced limited casualties compared with the number of missiles launched. Israeli retaliatory strikes in Iran killed security personnel. These outcomes reflected interception systems and the decisions by both parties to limit the intensity of attacks.

During the 2025 war, hundreds of people were reported killed in Iran, including civilians, military officials and nuclear scientists. Israeli casualties included civilians and service members. Iranian attacks struck residential areas, while Israeli operations affected densely populated urban districts and strategic facilities. The numbers changed as casualties were identified and reported.

Casualty estimates are uncertain and politically contested. Iranian and Israeli authorities controlled information during wartime, and independent journalists had limited access to affected sites. The death toll and damage were assessed through official statements, hospital reports, satellite imagery and independent media investigations.

Reactions and responses

The United States and European governments condemned Iran's direct attacks and helped defend Israel. They also urged restraint and pursued diplomatic channels to prevent escalation. Arab states that aided interception faced public and political sensitivities about cooperation with Israel. Jordan said its actions protected its airspace and citizens.

The United Nations called for de-escalation and respect for international law. Several governments condemned Israeli strikes on Iran, while others emphasized Iran's attacks and Israel's security concerns. Gulf states opposed a regional war and feared attacks on energy infrastructure and shipping.

Within Iran, officials presented retaliation as a defense of sovereignty and deterrence. Israeli leaders said their operations were necessary to neutralize threats from Iran's nuclear and missile programs. Public debate in both countries included questions about the effectiveness, risks and long-term consequences of military action.

Analysis

The direct exchanges challenged the assumption that Iran and Israel would keep their conflict largely indirect. Iran demonstrated its ability to launch large missile and drone salvos from its territory, while Israel demonstrated long-range strike capabilities. Allied participation in interception became a major factor, revealing the importance of regional partnerships and integrated air defense.

Each government had to manage escalation and domestic credibility. Iran sought to show that attacks on its personnel and territory carried costs, but it had incentives to avoid a war that could threaten the regime and damage infrastructure. Israel sought to reduce threats while limiting the risk of a prolonged multi-front war. The exchange of calibrated attacks could nonetheless produce miscalculation.

The nuclear issue remained unresolved. Military strikes could damage facilities but could not remove technical knowledge or settle Iran's political choices. If inspectors lost access, uncertainty about material and capabilities could grow. A renewed diplomatic framework would need verification, enforcement and security guarantees acceptable to the parties.