Iran

Iran is a country in Western Asia, bordered by the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Its terrain includes the Iranian Plateau, the Zagros and Alborz mountain ranges, deserts and fertile coastal lowlands. Tehran, the capital and largest city, is the centre of government and commerce. Iran’s position between the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Middle East and the Indian Ocean has made it a historic crossroads for trade, migration and empire.

The country’s history reaches from prehistoric settlements and ancient Elamite societies through the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian empires. Persian dynasties shaped political and cultural life across a large part of Asia. After the Arab Muslim conquest in the seventh century, Persian language and culture remained influential and later experienced a major literary revival. The Safavid dynasty established Shi'a Islam as the state religion in the sixteenth century, creating a legacy that continues to distinguish Iran’s religious and political history.

Modern Iran is an Islamic republic created by the 1979 revolution, which overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy. Its political system combines elected institutions with unelected bodies and a Supreme Leader who holds the highest authority. Iran has a large, urbanized population and a diversified economy, though oil and gas remain central. Its nuclear program, regional relationships and record on human rights have been major subjects of international diplomacy and domestic debate.

Etymology

Iran derives from Middle Persian Ērān, a form related to the name of the Iranian peoples. In 1935, Reza Shah Pahlavi asked foreign governments to use “Iran” rather than “Persia” in official correspondence. “Persia” had been common in Western languages and derives from Pars, the southwestern region associated with the Achaemenid heartland. “Iran” had long been used within the country and by neighbouring peoples.

Iran means “land of the Aryans” in its historical linguistic context, where “Aryan” referred to an ancient Iranian identity and not to modern racial ideologies. Persian remains the country’s official language, while Iran includes many ethnic and linguistic communities. The official name after the 1979 revolution is the Islamic Republic of Iran. The word “Persian” continues to be used for the Persian language, literature and cultural traditions, while “Iranian” is broader and refers to the state and its diverse population.

History

Prehistory and antiquity

Archaeological evidence shows human settlement on the Iranian Plateau from prehistoric times. Agricultural communities developed in western Iran and the Zagros, and early urban centres traded with Mesopotamia. Elamite polities flourished in the southwest, with Susa serving as an important centre. Elam interacted and competed with Sumerian, Akkadian and later Babylonian states. These societies left inscriptions, administrative records and monumental remains that reveal a region connected to the wider ancient Near East.

In the first millennium BCE, Iranian-speaking peoples established political power across the plateau. The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great in the sixth century BCE, became one of the largest empires of the ancient world. It governed territory from the Indus Valley to the Mediterranean through satrapies, royal roads and a system that permitted local customs and religions to continue. Persepolis served as a ceremonial centre. The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE.

After Alexander, the Seleucid dynasty governed much of Iran before the Parthians established the Arsacid Empire. The Parthians competed with Rome for control of Mesopotamia and Armenia. The Sasanian Empire succeeded them in the third century CE and became a major power rivaling the Roman and Byzantine empires. Sasanian rulers patronized Zoroastrian institutions and developed a sophisticated state bureaucracy. In the seventh century, Arab Muslim armies defeated the Sasanians, bringing the empire to an end.

Medieval period and Persian revival

Following the Arab conquest, Iran became part of the expanding Islamic caliphates. Arabic gained importance in administration and religious scholarship, while Persian continued as a spoken language and later re-emerged as a major literary language. Local dynasties governed parts of the plateau, sometimes under nominal caliphal authority. The Abbasid Revolution of 750 drew substantial support from eastern Iranian regions and ended the Umayyad Caliphate.

From the ninth century onward, Iranian dynasties such as the Samanids, Buyids and Saffarids strengthened regional rule and supported Persian writing. The New Persian literary tradition developed, with Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh preserving and reworking pre-Islamic Iranian history and legend. Persian became an important language of administration and culture well beyond Iran, particularly in Central and South Asia. The region’s Islamization occurred over centuries and varied between cities and rural communities.

Mongol invasions in the thirteenth century devastated many cities and agricultural systems. Mongol successor states later adopted Persian administrative practices and patronized arts and scholarship. Timur’s conquests brought further destruction in the late fourteenth century, followed by new dynasties and regional powers. Iran’s history during these centuries was shaped by the interaction of Turkic, Mongol and Iranian elites and by the resilience of Persian language and institutions.

Early modern empires

The Safavid dynasty unified much of Iran in the early sixteenth century and established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the state religion. Shah Ismail I founded the dynasty and expanded its territory. The Safavids developed a centralized monarchy, promoted religious institutions and made Isfahan a major capital under Shah Abbas I. Safavid Iran competed with the Ottoman Empire and Mughal India. Isfahan became known for its monumental squares, mosques, bridges and urban planning.

After Safavid authority weakened, Afghan forces captured Isfahan in 1722. Nader Shah restored Iranian power and founded the Afsharid dynasty, campaigning into India and Central Asia. His empire fragmented after his assassination. The Zand dynasty ruled parts of Iran before the Qajar dynasty consolidated power in the late eighteenth century. Qajar rulers faced Russian expansion, British influence and internal challenges. Treaties ceded territories in the Caucasus, and foreign concessions provoked opposition among merchants and clerics.

Constitutional revolution and Pahlavi era

The Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911 forced the Qajar monarch to accept a constitution and parliament, the Majles. The movement drew support from merchants, clerics, intellectuals and reformers seeking limits on royal authority and foreign influence. Its achievements were weakened by internal conflict and foreign intervention. During the First World War, Iran declared neutrality but was occupied by Russian, British and Ottoman forces in different regions.

Reza Khan seized power in 1921 and founded the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925. His government centralized authority, built a national army and expanded secular education, transport and state administration. Reforms also restricted tribal autonomy and religious institutions, and compulsory modernization created social tensions. In 1941, Britain and the Soviet Union occupied Iran to secure supply routes during the Second World War and forced Reza Shah to abdicate in favour of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

After the war, political competition expanded. Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh nationalized the oil industry in 1951, challenging the British-controlled Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In 1953, a coup backed by the United States and Britain removed Mosaddegh and strengthened the Shah’s rule. The monarchy pursued rapid modernization, including land reform and expanded education, while suppressing opposition through the security service SAVAK. Economic growth and urbanization coexisted with political repression, inequality and disputes over the role of religion.

Islamic Revolution and the Islamic Republic

Mass protests and strikes in 1978–1979 forced the Shah to leave Iran. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile, and the monarchy was abolished after a referendum established the Islamic Republic. The new constitution created a system in which elected offices operate alongside institutions led by clerics. Khomeini became Supreme Leader, and revolutionary authorities consolidated power through purges, political trials and restrictions on opponents.

In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, beginning an eight-year war. The conflict caused extensive casualties and destruction. Iranian forces mobilized large numbers of soldiers and volunteers, while Iraq used chemical weapons. The war ended in 1988 without major border changes. Khomeini died in 1989, and Ali Khamenei became Supreme Leader. The postwar government rebuilt infrastructure and pursued economic recovery, while retaining the institutions of clerical oversight and revolutionary politics.

During Khamenei’s tenure, Iran experienced political competition between reformists, conservatives and hardliners, though candidates and legislation were subject to review by unelected institutions. Presidents including Mohammad Khatami, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Hassan Rouhani pursued different domestic and foreign policies. Public demonstrations in 1999, 2009, 2017–2018, 2019 and 2022 reflected concerns about political freedoms, economic conditions and social restrictions. Authorities have frequently responded with arrests, internet restrictions and force.

Iran’s regional influence expanded through alliances with governments and armed organizations in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen. The United States designated the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps as a foreign terrorist organization in 2019. Iran’s support for armed groups and its development of missile capabilities have been central concerns for Israel, Gulf states and Western governments. Iran has described its policies as deterrence and support for regional partners, while its opponents argue that they destabilize neighbouring countries.

Geography

Iran is the second-largest country in the Middle East by area and sits on the Iranian Plateau. The Zagros Mountains run along the west and southwest, while the Alborz range rises north of Tehran and includes Mount Damavand, the highest peak in the country. The central plateau contains salt deserts, including Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut. The Caspian lowlands are humid and fertile, contrasting with the arid interior and the subtropical coast of the Persian Gulf.

Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and Turkey. Its northern shore meets the Caspian Sea; its southern coast borders the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. These coastlines give Iran access to important maritime routes, including the Strait of Hormuz. Rivers are generally limited in the arid interior, though the Karun and other waterways support settlement and agriculture in the southwest. Dams and groundwater extraction have altered water availability.

Climate and biodiversity

Iran’s climate ranges from humid subtropical conditions on the Caspian coast to arid desert in the interior. Mountain elevations have cold winters and seasonal snow, while southern lowlands experience extreme summer heat. Precipitation is uneven and concentrated in winter and spring. Drought, falling groundwater levels and desertification affect farms and cities. Water shortages have contributed to protests and prompted restrictions on agricultural and household use.

The country’s varied elevations and climates support forests, wetlands, grasslands and desert ecosystems. The Caspian Hyrcanian forests contain distinctive temperate species, while mountain areas support wild goats and other mammals. Wetlands attract migratory birds but have been damaged by drainage and water diversion. Conservation faces pressure from urbanization, poaching, pollution and climate change.

Government and politics

Iran is an Islamic republic established by the 1979 constitution. The Supreme Leader is the highest authority and directs general policy, commands the armed forces and appoints senior officials in key institutions. The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term and heads the executive, except in areas reserved to the Supreme Leader. The president’s candidates must first be approved by the Guardian Council, which screens eligibility.

The Islamic Consultative Assembly, or Majles, is a unicameral parliament elected by voters. It passes legislation and approves the budget, but laws are reviewed by the Guardian Council for compatibility with the constitution and Islamic law. The Assembly of Experts is elected and formally responsible for selecting and supervising the Supreme Leader. The Expediency Discernment Council resolves disputes between parliament and the Guardian Council and advises the Supreme Leader.

Security, foreign relations and law

The Supreme National Security Council coordinates national security policy. Iran’s armed forces consist of the regular army, navy and air force, as well as the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. The IRGC has a central role in protecting the revolution and operates the Quds Force, which conducts external operations. The Basij is a volunteer paramilitary organization associated with the IRGC. Compulsory military service applies to men, with statutory provisions for exemptions.

Iran’s foreign policy is shaped by its rivalry with the United States and Israel, relationships with Russia and China, and competition and diplomacy with Arab states. The 2015 nuclear agreement, formally the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, limited Iran’s nuclear activities in return for sanctions relief. The United States withdrew from the agreement in 2018 and reimposed sanctions. Iran subsequently exceeded some nuclear limits. Negotiations and monitoring by the International Atomic Energy Agency have remained central to diplomatic efforts.

Iran’s legal system combines civil codes with constitutional provisions requiring laws to conform to Islamic criteria. The judiciary is headed by an appointee of the Supreme Leader. Courts include revolutionary courts that try national security and political cases. Human-rights organizations have documented executions, restrictions on expression and assembly, discrimination against women and minorities, arbitrary detention and the use of force against protesters. Iranian officials defend the system as grounded in the constitution and Islamic law; critics argue that its institutions restrict political competition and basic rights.

Administrative divisions, censorship and regional influence

Iran is divided into provinces, each governed through provincial institutions and local administrations. Tehran is the most populous province, while major cities include Mashhad, Isfahan, Tabriz, Shiraz and Qom. Mashhad is a major religious centre, and Qom is an important centre of Shi'a scholarship. Provincial diversity reflects differences in language, ethnicity, climate and economic activity.

State institutions restrict access to many websites and social-media services. Independent journalists, activists and online publishers face censorship, arrest and prosecution. Authorities have shut down or slowed internet access during protests and security crises. Satellite television and circumvention tools are widely used, though access and enforcement vary. Media policy forms part of the broader political contest over public information and dissent.

Iran’s regional policy includes support for allied governments and non-state armed groups. The IRGC’s Quds Force has worked with militias and organizations in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen. Iran describes these relationships as a defensive network and support for resistance to foreign intervention. Israel, the United States and several Arab governments view the network as a source of instability and a threat to their security. Iranian military and political influence grew during the Iraq and Syrian wars, but has also generated sanctions and regional countermeasures.

Economy

Iran has a mixed economy in which the state, public foundations and private firms all play major roles. Oil and natural gas are central to exports and government revenue. The country also has manufacturing, mining, agriculture, construction, transport and service sectors. International sanctions have restricted access to finance, technology and export markets, contributing to inflation and currency depreciation. State subsidies support fuel and basic goods but place pressure on public finances.

Iran’s large population, universities and industrial base support domestic production of vehicles, steel, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and consumer goods. Unemployment and underemployment, especially among young people and graduates, remain concerns. The private sector faces regulation, uncertainty and competition from state-linked firms. Economic conditions have varied with oil prices, sanctions policy and regional security.

Tourism, agriculture and industry

Iran has a substantial cultural and natural tourism sector. Isfahan, Shiraz, Yazd and Persepolis attract visitors interested in Persian architecture and history. Mashhad and Qom are major religious destinations. Mountain resorts, deserts, forests and the Caspian coast offer varied landscapes. International travel has been affected by sanctions, visa restrictions and political tensions, while domestic tourism remains significant.

Agriculture produces wheat, rice, fruits, nuts, saffron, pistachios and livestock. The distribution of farmland follows water and climate, with irrigation essential in many regions. Water scarcity has reduced yields and contributed to disputes over river use and dams. Fishing is important along the Caspian and southern coasts. Industry includes petrochemicals, steel, cement, textiles, food processing and automobile manufacturing. The sector’s ability to modernize is constrained by sanctions and limited investment.

Energy, science and telecommunications

Iran holds large oil and natural-gas reserves. Energy production underpins the economy and supports domestic electricity and petrochemical industries. Sanctions have limited exports and access to modern extraction technology. Subsidized domestic fuel consumption is high, and energy inefficiency creates environmental and fiscal costs. Iran has invested in renewable energy but remains dependent on hydrocarbons.

Iranian universities and research institutions train scientists and engineers, and the country has developed programs in medicine, engineering, aerospace and nuclear technology. The Iranian Space Agency operates satellite and launch programs. These activities are presented by the government as scientific development; some governments view missile and nuclear capabilities as security concerns. Telecommunications have expanded, though internet governance remains heavily controlled. Mobile networks and domestic platforms support commerce and public services.

Demographics

Iran has a population of more than 80 million, concentrated in cities and the western half of the country. Tehran is by far the largest urban area. Mashhad, Isfahan, Karaj, Tabriz and Shiraz are other major cities. Rural-to-urban migration has expanded metropolitan regions, while internal migration reflects employment, education and water availability. Iran also hosts refugees, particularly from Afghanistan.

Ethnic groups, languages and religion

Persians are the largest ethnic group. Other communities include Azeris, Kurds, Lurs, Arabs, Baloch, Turkmen, Armenians, Assyrians and others. Their populations are concentrated differently across provinces, and identities can be both local and national. Iran’s ethnic diversity is reflected in its languages, music, food and regional traditions. Minority communities have reported unequal access to education, political office and economic opportunity.

Persian, also called Farsi, is the official language and the principal language of education and government. Azerbaijani Turkish, Kurdish, Luri, Arabic, Balochi, Turkmen, Armenian and Assyrian languages are also spoken. Persian literature has shaped cultural life across a broad region, and Iranian communities continue to produce poetry and scholarship in several languages.

Twelver Shi'a Islam is the state religion and the faith of most Iranians. Sunni Muslims live mainly in border regions, while recognized religious minorities include Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians. The constitution recognizes several minority religions and reserves parliamentary seats for some communities. The Baha'i faith is not officially recognized, and its members have faced discrimination and persecution. Religious practice and observance vary, and public debates about the role of clerical authority are prominent.

Education and health

Iran has expanded literacy and access to primary and secondary education over the past century. Universities in Tehran, Isfahan, Shiraz and other cities enroll large student populations, including women in many fields. Educational access and quality vary between urban and rural areas and among provinces. Academic institutions operate under political and religious oversight, and students and faculty have faced disciplinary measures for activism.

The healthcare system combines public services, social insurance and private providers. Iran has trained medical professionals and domestic pharmaceutical production, but sanctions and economic pressures have affected access to some medicines and equipment. Rural health networks provide primary care, while major cities host specialized hospitals. Public health challenges include air pollution, non-communicable disease and uneven access to services.

Culture

Iranian culture reflects Persian literary traditions, pre-Islamic history, Shi'a religious practice and the customs of many ethnic communities. Nowruz, the Persian new year at the spring equinox, is celebrated across Iran and neighbouring societies. Family gatherings, poetry and regional music are important parts of social life. Persian carpets, ceramics, miniature painting and calligraphy are recognized internationally.

Art, literature, music and media

Iranian visual arts include architecture, tilework, gardens, miniature painting, calligraphy and contemporary film. Isfahan’s Safavid monuments and Persepolis’s Achaemenid remains are among the country’s best-known heritage sites. Persian poetry, including works by Hafez, Saadi, Rumi and Ferdowsi, has had enduring influence. Modern writers have addressed social change, censorship, migration and political life.

Music includes classical Persian traditions, regional folk forms and contemporary genres. Public performance is regulated, and restrictions differ for men and women. Iranian cinema has won international recognition for films that often explore family, ethics and social constraint. State broadcasting dominates television and radio, while independent media work online or from abroad. Censorship affects film, books, journalism and the internet, but cultural production remains active.

Cuisine and sport

Iranian cuisine varies by region and includes rice, herbs, grilled meats, stews, breads and fruit. Dishes such as chelow kebab, ghormeh sabzi and fesenjan combine local ingredients and long-established cooking methods. Tea is widely consumed, and hospitality is an important social practice. The Caspian region, the central plateau and the southern coast each contribute distinctive foods.

Football is the most popular sport, and Iran has a strong record in Asian competitions. Wrestling has a long cultural history, and volleyball, basketball, martial arts and weightlifting are also widely practiced. Iranian athletes compete internationally, while women’s participation has expanded within regulations governing dress and public sport. Sporting events can become occasions for national celebration and public expression.