Gaza War

The Gaza War began on 7 October 2023, when Hamas and allied armed groups launched a large-scale attack on Israel from the Gaza Strip. The attackers killed civilians and soldiers and abducted more than 200 people. Israel declared war and began an air campaign in Gaza, followed by a ground invasion. Israel's stated objectives were to dismantle Hamas's military and governing capacity and secure the release of hostages.

Fighting involved Israeli forces and Hamas, Islamic Jihad Movement and other armed factions. Israeli troops conducted operations across Gaza, including in Gaza City, Khan Yunis and Rafah. Hamas used tunnels, rockets and small-unit attacks. The conflict caused extensive destruction and mass displacement, while Israeli hostages remained in captivity. Humanitarian agencies reported severe shortages of food, water, fuel and medical supplies.

The war had regional consequences. Hezbollah exchanged fire with Israel across the northern border, and the Houthis attacked commercial shipping in the Red Sea. Iran's support for armed groups and its direct confrontation with Israel heightened the risk of wider war. International diplomacy focused on ceasefires, hostage releases, humanitarian access and the future governance of Gaza, with no comprehensive settlement resolving the underlying conflict.

Background

Hamas took control of Gaza in 2007 after violent clashes with Fatah and the Ramallah-based Arab administration. Israel and Egypt imposed restrictions on movement and goods, citing security concerns and attacks by armed groups. Gaza experienced multiple rounds of conflict, including major Israeli operations in 2008–09, 2012, 2014 and 2021. Rocket launches, Israeli air strikes, tunnel construction and border clashes continued between those wars.

Hamas is an Islamist organization with a political apparatus and an armed wing. It rejects Israel's legitimacy and has targeted Israeli civilians through suicide bombings, rockets and other attacks. The United States, European Union, United Kingdom, Canada and other governments designate Hamas as a terrorist organization. Islamic Jihad Movement is a separate Iran-backed armed group that also launched attacks and rockets at Israel.

The October 7 attack represented a major failure of Israeli intelligence and border defenses. Hamas used a coordinated plan involving rocket fire, explosive breaches, armed teams, drones and motorized paragliders. Israeli officials later faced criticism for underestimating Hamas's intentions and readiness. The attack killed about 1,200 people in Israel and left hundreds wounded.

Before the war, Israel and Hamas had periodically negotiated arrangements involving prisoner exchanges, border access and economic measures. These arrangements did not resolve the security threat or Hamas's control of Gaza. The attack and hostage-taking ended the prior pattern of limited conflict and produced an Israeli military campaign on a much larger scale.

War in Israel and Gaza

Initial air campaign and evacuation orders

Israel began air strikes in Gaza on 7 October. The strikes targeted Hamas command structures, rocket sites, weapons storage and infrastructure. Hamas continued to launch rockets into Israel, including toward major population centers. Israel's Iron Dome system intercepted many rockets, while some struck buildings or open areas.

Israel ordered residents of northern Gaza to move south as ground operations approached. Hundreds of thousands of people fled, many moving multiple times as combat shifted. The evacuation order was criticized by humanitarian organizations because safe routes, shelter and basic supplies were limited. Israel said it sought to reduce civilian exposure to combat, while Hamas urged residents to remain in their homes and used urban terrain to resist Israeli forces.

Israeli strikes hit military targets but also caused extensive civilian casualties and damage to homes, hospitals, schools, mosques and public infrastructure. Israel said Hamas operated from civilian areas and used tunnels and protected sites for military purposes. Hamas denied or disputed specific Israeli claims. International law requires combatants to distinguish civilians from military targets and prohibits disproportionate attacks.

Ground invasion

On 27 October 2023, Israeli ground forces expanded operations in northern Gaza. Troops moved through Gaza City and surrounding districts, engaging Hamas fighters in urban combat. Israeli forces located tunnels, weapons and command sites and destroyed parts of the network. Hamas fighters launched ambushes and anti-tank attacks and emerged from tunnel openings.

Israeli forces entered Al-Shifa Hospital in November, asserting that Hamas used an underground command center beneath the complex. The military presented weapons and tunnel evidence; international reporting and later assessments debated the scale and operational significance of the facilities. The hospital had treated patients and sheltered displaced civilians, and its evacuation and loss of function intensified the medical emergency.

A temporary pause in November enabled the release of Israeli and foreign hostages in exchange for prisoners held by Israel and an increase in aid deliveries. The pause ended after seven days, and fighting resumed. Hamas retained additional captives, including soldiers and civilians, while Israeli forces continued searches and operations across the north.

Operations in central and southern Gaza

Israeli forces expanded operations into central Gaza and Khan Yunis in December 2023. Residents were directed to designated areas, but fighting and air strikes affected multiple districts. Hamas maintained an organized presence and launched attacks on Israeli troops. The campaign displaced large numbers of civilians toward Rafah, near the Egyptian border.

In early 2024, Israel conducted raids and ground operations in areas where Hamas had regrouped. Israeli forces returned to parts of northern Gaza and fought militants in neighborhoods previously cleared. The repeated operations illustrated the difficulty of dismantling an underground organization while maintaining control of densely populated territory.

Rafah became a focus of international concern because more than a million displaced people had gathered there. Israel said Hamas battalions remained in the city and that military action was necessary to achieve its objectives. Egypt and other governments warned against a mass displacement across the border. Israel's operation in Rafah caused further evacuations and combat, while aid access and civilian protection remained disputed.

Hostage negotiations

Qatar, Egypt and the United States mediated negotiations between Israel and Hamas. Proposals addressed pauses in fighting, the release of hostages, exchanges with prisoners, withdrawal of Israeli troops and postwar arrangements. The sides disagreed over whether a temporary ceasefire should lead to a permanent end to the war and whether Hamas would relinquish its governing role.

Some hostages were released during the November 2023 pause, while others were rescued by Israeli forces or found dead. Families of captives campaigned for a deal and held public demonstrations, arguing that time in captivity increased danger. Israeli officials faced competing pressure to defeat Hamas and return the hostages.

Hamas's hostage-taking was a grave violation of international law. Captives and their relatives reported psychological and physical trauma. The International Committee of the Red Cross sought access to hostages but was denied entry in many cases. Hostage releases became a central measure of diplomatic progress.

Impact

The war caused catastrophic destruction in Gaza. Residential buildings, public facilities, roads, water systems and power infrastructure were damaged or destroyed. Large parts of Gaza's population were displaced, often repeatedly. The United Nations and aid organizations warned that food insecurity and disease were widespread and that the health system was close to collapse.

Israel experienced deaths, injuries, evacuations and economic disruption. Residents near Gaza and the northern border left their homes, and many remained displaced while fighting continued. The October 7 attack caused lasting trauma among survivors and bereaved families. Israeli businesses and agriculture in border communities suffered extensive damage.

Humanitarian agencies sought expanded access through crossings, including Kerem Shalom and Rafah. Aid deliveries were limited by insecurity, inspections, damaged roads and disputes over distribution. Israel said it facilitated aid and accused Hamas of diverting supplies; aid organizations emphasized the scale of need and barriers to reaching civilians.

Casualties

Israeli deaths on 7 October totaled about 1,200, including civilians, soldiers, police and foreign nationals. Hundreds were injured, and more than 200 were abducted. Israeli military casualties accumulated during the subsequent ground campaign. The exact status of hostages changed over time as individuals were released, rescued, killed or confirmed dead.

Gaza's health authorities reported tens of thousands of deaths during the war. The figures included civilians and combatants and could not always be independently verified. The United Nations and other organizations cited those totals while noting limitations in identifying combatant status. Large numbers of people were injured, and many remained missing under rubble.

Casualty estimates differ by source, time period and methodology. The destruction of civil registration and health facilities complicated record-keeping. Independent assessments have emphasized the scale of civilian harm and the difficulty of conducting comprehensive verification during active combat.

War crimes allegations and investigations

International organizations and governments investigated violations by Israeli forces and armed groups in Gaza. Allegations included indiscriminate attacks, disproportionate use of force, starvation as a method of warfare, forced displacement, hostage-taking and deliberate attacks on civilians. Hamas and other factions were accused of using civilian areas for military purposes and launching rockets indiscriminately at Israel.

The International Criminal Court prosecutor sought arrest warrants for leaders of Hamas and Israel in 2024, alleging crimes under the court's jurisdiction. The International Court of Justice considered a case brought by South Africa and issued provisional measures concerning Israel's obligations under the Genocide Convention. These were legal proceedings and interim decisions; they did not constitute final criminal convictions or a final judgment on all claims.

Israel said its forces operated under international law and investigated alleged misconduct. Hamas rejected responsibility for civilian harm and denied some allegations. Independent fact-finding faced challenges including restricted access, combat conditions, evidence destruction and competing accounts. Accountability remained a central issue for victims and international institutions.

Regional spillover

Hezbollah began firing at Israeli positions and communities from Lebanon on 8 October 2023. Israel responded with air strikes and artillery, and the exchanges displaced residents on both sides of the border. The conflict remained below the level of a full-scale war for much of the period, but escalations and targeted killings raised the risk of a broader confrontation.

Iran-backed groups in Iraq and Syria attacked U.S. forces, while the United States conducted retaliatory strikes. The Houthis launched missiles and drones toward Israel and attacked commercial vessels in the Red Sea, claiming solidarity with Gaza. The United States and Britain struck Houthi targets in Yemen, and naval coalitions sought to protect shipping.

In April 2024, Iran launched a direct attack on Israel using drones and missiles after an Israeli strike in Damascus killed senior Iranian officers. Israel and partner forces intercepted most of the incoming weapons. The exchange marked a major escalation in the Israel-Iran confrontation and demonstrated how the Gaza conflict intersected with a wider regional rivalry.

Peace plans

Diplomatic proposals included phased hostage releases, pauses in fighting, expanded humanitarian aid and arrangements for a postwar administration in Gaza. Israel stated that Hamas could not retain military or governing control. Hamas demanded an end to Israeli military operations and withdrawal. Arab states emphasized a political process and opposed permanent displacement of Gaza's residents.

The United States proposed frameworks for reconstruction and regional normalization connected to a broader political settlement. Israeli political leaders disagreed over the future role of the Ramallah-based Arab administration, international forces and local governance. Hamas rejected proposals that would exclude it without a comprehensive agreement.

A durable settlement would require security arrangements, reconstruction, accountable governance and a political horizon acceptable to Israelis and residents of Gaza. Ceasefire negotiations repeatedly stalled over sequencing, guarantees and the release of hostages. The humanitarian emergency continued to shape international pressure.

Public opinion

Israeli public opinion initially rallied around national defense and the return of hostages. Over time, debate intensified over military strategy, government responsibility for the October 7 failures and the priority assigned to hostage negotiations. Demonstrations called for elections, an inquiry and a deal to bring captives home.

International public opinion was sharply divided. Many governments and publics condemned the October 7 attacks and supported Israel's right to defend itself, while also criticizing civilian casualties and restrictions on aid. Protests around the world called for a ceasefire and humanitarian access. Antisemitic and anti-Muslim incidents rose in several countries.

Media coverage

Journalists covered the war under severe restrictions. Israeli authorities provided escorted visits to some combat zones, while Gaza access for foreign correspondents was limited. local Arab journalists and media workers in Gaza faced extreme danger; many were killed or injured. Information came from witnesses, officials, military briefings, videos and satellite imagery, each requiring careful verification.

Social media distributed footage of attacks and destruction rapidly. Some material was authentic, while other images were old, miscaptioned or manipulated. News organizations and fact-checkers examined videos and claims, but the speed and volume of content made misinformation difficult to contain. Media framing became part of the conflict itself.