Sudan

Sudan is a country in northeastern Africa, bordered by Egypt, Libya, Chad, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Nile and its tributaries cross the country from south to north, supporting settlement and agriculture. Khartoum, at the confluence of the White Nile and Blue Nile, is the capital and largest metropolitan centre. Sudan has diverse landscapes, from desert in the north to savanna and mountain regions in the south and west.

Sudan became independent from joint British-Egyptian rule in 1956. Its modern history has been marked by military coups, civil wars, authoritarian governments and efforts to establish civilian rule. A 2019 revolution removed Omar al-Bashir after nearly three decades in power. A 2021 coup disrupted the transition, and fighting between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces erupted in April 2023. The war has caused mass displacement, hunger and destruction.

Sudan’s population includes many Arab and non-Arab communities, with numerous languages and regional identities. Most residents are Muslim, while Christian and traditional religious communities are also present. The economy has relied on agriculture, livestock, gold and trade, but conflict and the 2011 secession of South Sudan reduced oil revenue and weakened public finances. Sudan’s political future remains uncertain amid competing military authorities and international mediation.

Etymology

The name Sudan comes from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, meaning “lands of the Blacks.” Medieval Arab geographers used the term for a broad belt of Africa south of the Sahara, rather than a single state. The modern Republic of the Sudan adopted the name at independence in 1956. Before the secession of South Sudan in 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa by area.

The country’s history and name reflect its position between the Arab world and sub-Saharan Africa. Sudanese identity includes Arabic language and Islamic traditions as well as African ethnic, linguistic and cultural heritage. The balance among these identities has been central to political debates over the character of the state and the rights of its diverse communities.

History

Prehistory and Kerma

The Nile Valley of Sudan has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Early communities relied on fishing, agriculture and pastoralism. The Kingdom of Kerma flourished south of Egypt from around 2500 to 1500 BCE, developing urban centres and trading networks. Kerma competed with ancient Egypt and at times controlled territory along the Nile. Archaeological remains include monumental structures and extensive burial sites.

Egyptian rulers later conquered Nubia and established forts and administrative centres in the region. After Egyptian control weakened, the Kingdom of Kush emerged and ruled from centres including Napata and Meroë. Kushite kings conquered Egypt in the eighth century BCE and founded the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. Meroë became a centre of ironworking, trade and distinctive writing. The kingdom declined in the fourth century CE.

Christian kingdoms and Islamic sultanates

After the decline of Kush, Christian Nubian kingdoms developed along the Nile, including Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia. These states maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with Egypt and other neighbours for centuries. Christianity shaped Nubian architecture and political life. Muslim migration and trade gradually expanded southward, and by the sixteenth century Islamic kingdoms such as Sennar and Darfur governed parts of modern Sudan.

The Funj Sultanate, centred at Sennar, ruled much of central Sudan from the early sixteenth century. The Darfur Sultanate developed in the west and maintained its own political institutions and trade routes. These states interacted with Egypt, Ethiopia, the Red Sea and trans-Saharan commerce. Local rulers and communities retained varied forms of authority across the region.

Turco-Egyptian and Mahdist rule

In 1820, Ottoman-Egyptian forces under Muhammad Ali invaded Sudan and brought much of the region under Egyptian administration. The Turco-Egyptian government expanded taxation, military recruitment and trade in enslaved people. Egyptian authorities established Khartoum as an administrative and commercial centre. Resistance to foreign rule and resentment of taxation grew across the country.

In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and led a revolt against Turco-Egyptian rule. Mahdist forces captured Khartoum in 1885 and established an Islamic state. The Mahdist government ruled much of Sudan until British and Egyptian forces defeated it in 1898. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium was established in 1899, with Britain exercising effective control while the arrangement formally recognized joint sovereignty.

Anglo-Egyptian rule and independence

Under the condominium, British authorities developed river transport, irrigation and cotton production, particularly around the Gezira Scheme. Political and administrative systems differed between northern and southern areas. The colonial government fostered some regional and religious divisions and limited political participation. Nationalist movements emerged in the mid-twentieth century, with competing parties advocating independence and different relationships with Egypt.

Sudan became independent on 1 January 1956. Civilian governments were unstable, and the military seized power in 1958. A long civil war between the central government and southern rebels began before independence and continued until 1972, when the Addis Ababa Agreement granted the south regional autonomy. The peace was fragile and collapsed in 1983 after President Jaafar Nimeiri imposed new policies and reorganized the country.

Bashir era and partition

Omar al-Bashir seized power in a 1989 coup supported by Islamist politicians. His government introduced an Islamist legal framework and suppressed opposition. The civil war with the Sudan People’s Liberation Army continued for decades, causing deaths, displacement and famine. The conflict ended with the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which granted southern autonomy and provided for a referendum on independence.

In 2003, conflict erupted in Darfur between government forces and rebel groups. Government-backed Janjaweed militias were accused of mass atrocities and forced displacement. The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir in 2009, the first such warrant for a sitting head of state. A referendum in 2011 led to South Sudan’s independence, depriving Sudan of much of its oil production and increasing economic strain.

Revolution, coup and civil war

In December 2018, protests over rising prices and shortages grew into a nationwide movement demanding the end of al-Bashir’s rule. The military removed him in April 2019. A civilian-military Sovereignty Council and transitional government were formed, led by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok. The transition faced economic crisis, disputes over justice and security, and pressure from military leaders.

In October 2021, General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan led a coup that dissolved transitional institutions and detained civilian leaders. Protests continued against military rule. Tensions grew between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces, a powerful paramilitary group led by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as Hemedti. Negotiations over integrating the RSF into the army and establishing civilian government failed.

On 15 April 2023, fighting erupted in Khartoum and spread across the country. The conflict displaced millions and destroyed homes, hospitals and markets. Both the SAF and RSF have been accused of war crimes and attacks on civilians. The RSF captured large areas of Darfur and parts of Khartoum, while the SAF retained control of other regions and eventually regained parts of the capital. Ethnic violence in Darfur, particularly in El Geneina, caused mass killings and displacement. Humanitarian aid access has been restricted, and famine conditions have been reported in several areas.

Regional powers have been accused of supporting competing sides, while the United Nations, African Union and neighbouring states have sought ceasefires and negotiations. Saudi Arabia and the United States mediated talks in Jeddah, but repeated truces collapsed. The war has also disrupted agriculture and trade, with millions fleeing to Egypt, Chad, South Sudan and other countries. A durable settlement requires a ceasefire, civilian protection, humanitarian access and an agreed path to civilian government.

Geography

Sudan is the third-largest country in Africa by area. The Nile system crosses the country, with the White Nile flowing north from South Sudan and the Blue Nile arriving from Ethiopia. They meet at Khartoum to form the main Nile, which continues through northern Sudan into Egypt. The river valley and Gezira plain support the densest settlement and irrigated agriculture.

The north includes desert and semi-desert regions, while central areas transition to savanna. The west contains the Darfur plateau and Jebel Marra volcanic massif. The Red Sea Hills rise in the northeast, and the country’s Red Sea coast includes Port Sudan, its principal port. Egypt lies to the north, while Libya borders Sudan to the northwest. Khartoum is situated where the Blue and White Nile meet.

Climate and environmental issues

Sudan has a hot climate that ranges from desert in the north to tropical conditions in the south. Rainfall is low and irregular in northern areas and higher in the south and west. The rainy season supports agriculture and pasture, but droughts and floods can cause severe losses. Climate change has increased heat and rainfall variability.

Environmental challenges include desertification, deforestation, soil erosion and water pollution. Irrigation and dam projects have altered river flows. The loss of South Sudan reduced Sudan’s oil resources, while conflict has damaged land and infrastructure. Wildlife includes elephants, antelope, giraffes and migratory birds, though poaching and habitat loss threaten populations.

Government and politics

Sudan’s political institutions have been disrupted by the 2021 coup and the 2023 civil war. The SAF-led authorities and RSF exercise competing forms of control. A Sovereignty Council established after the coup claims national authority, while local administrations and armed groups govern areas on the ground. The civilian transition envisioned in 2019 has not been completed, and national elections have not been held.

Law, administration and foreign relations

Sudan’s legal system has been shaped by British common law, Islamic jurisprudence and statutory codes. Under al-Bashir, the government expanded Sharia-based legislation. Transitional authorities announced reforms after 2019, including changes to public-order laws, but implementation was uneven. The conflict has further weakened courts and law enforcement. Human-rights organizations report arbitrary detention, torture, sexual violence and restrictions on journalists.

The country is divided into states and local administrative units. Khartoum, Gezira, Darfur, Kordofan, the Northern State and Red Sea State are among the major regions. Political control and service delivery vary because of the conflict. Port Sudan became a temporary administrative centre for some government institutions after fighting made Khartoum inaccessible.

Sudan is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Arab League and Intergovernmental Authority on Development. Foreign relations involve Egypt, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Russia and the United States. The Nile water dispute with Ethiopia and Egypt is a major regional issue. Sudan’s ports and Red Sea coastline have attracted international interest.

Military and security

The Sudanese Armed Forces are the country’s conventional military. The Rapid Support Forces developed from the Janjaweed militias and were formally incorporated into the state security structure under al-Bashir, while retaining separate leadership and financing. The two forces became rivals over political authority and the proposed transition. Their conflict has fragmented the state and created insecurity across much of the country.

Other armed groups operate in Darfur, Blue Nile and South Kordofan. Some signed peace agreements with the transitional government, while others remained outside the process. The disarmament and integration of these forces are central challenges for any future settlement. Civilian communities have formed local protection groups, but arms proliferation increases risks of further violence.

Economy

Sudan’s economy relies on agriculture, livestock, gold, oil transit fees and trade. Before South Sudan’s independence, oil was a major export; afterward, Sudan lost most oil fields but retained pipelines and facilities carrying South Sudanese oil to Port Sudan. Gold production became an important source of revenue, though much of the trade is informal. Conflict has disrupted production and weakened public finances.

Agriculture employs a large share of the population and includes sorghum, millet, wheat, cotton, sesame and gum arabic. The Gezira Scheme is one of the world’s largest irrigation projects. Livestock exports support rural livelihoods and trade with Gulf states. Drought, floods, high input costs and conflict have reduced production and food access.

Sudan faces inflation, currency instability, external debt and limited access to international finance. The 2023 war disrupted banking, transport, fuel supplies and public services. Millions of people depend on humanitarian aid. Port Sudan remains critical for imports and exports, while roads and railways connect agricultural areas to coastal markets. Reconstruction requires peace, restored institutions and investment in transport, electricity and water infrastructure.

Demographics

Sudan’s population is diverse and includes Arab, Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuba, Zaghawa and many other communities. The population is concentrated along the Nile and in major cities, while desert regions are sparsely settled. The war has caused mass internal displacement and refugee movements into neighbouring countries. Population estimates are uncertain because of conflict and migration.

Languages, religion, education and health

Arabic is the most widely used language and one of the official languages; English is also official under the transitional framework. Dozens of indigenous languages are spoken, including Nubian, Beja, Fur and Nuba languages. Language reflects the country’s cultural diversity and historical links between the Sahel, Nile Valley and Red Sea.

Most Sudanese are Sunni Muslims. Christian communities are present, particularly in urban areas and among some ethnic groups, alongside traditional African religions. The separation of South Sudan in 2011 altered the country’s religious composition. Religious identity has influenced law and politics, especially during the Bashir period.

Sudan’s education system expanded after independence, with universities in Khartoum and other cities. Conflict and economic hardship have disrupted schooling, damaged facilities and displaced teachers. Healthcare services have been severely affected by fighting, with hospitals damaged or closed and medical supplies scarce. Cholera, malaria and malnutrition pose serious risks. Humanitarian organizations provide emergency assistance where access is possible.

Culture

Sudanese culture reflects Arab, Nubian, African and Islamic traditions. Music, poetry and oral history preserve regional identities and social memory. The country’s cultural heritage includes ancient Nubian kingdoms, Islamic architecture and colonial-era urban centres. Conflict has damaged museums, archives and historic sites, while artists and writers have continued to document political change.

Music, cinema and arts

Sudanese music combines Arabic forms with African rhythms and regional instruments. Artists have addressed social change, migration and political struggle. Sudanese cinema developed from the mid-twentieth century, though production has faced censorship, limited funding and conflict. Visual arts include painting, calligraphy and crafts, with cultural institutions based primarily in Khartoum and other cities.

Traditional clothing varies by region and community. The jalabiya and turban are common among men, while women may wear the tobe, a large wrapped cloth. Clothing reflects climate, social customs and religious practice. Sudanese literature includes Arabic and local-language poetry and prose, with writers exploring identity, colonial history and civil war.

Sport

Football is the most popular sport, and Sudan was an early participant in African football competitions. The national team won the Africa Cup of Nations in 1970. Basketball, athletics and wrestling also have followings. Conflict has damaged facilities and displaced athletes, but clubs and community programs continue to provide sport and recreation.