Sudanese Civil War

The Sudanese Civil War began on 15 April 2023 when fighting broke out between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a powerful paramilitary organization. The two forces had jointly displaced Sudan's civilian-led transitional government in a 2021 coup, but their leaders later clashed over the future of the state and the integration of the RSF into the regular military.

Combat began in Khartoum and spread to Darfur, Kordofan and other regions. Both forces used heavy weapons in populated areas, while the RSF captured territory and the SAF relied on aircraft and artillery. The war fragmented state authority and destroyed homes, hospitals, markets and public infrastructure. Reports documented ethnic killings, sexual violence, looting and attacks on civilians, especially in Darfur.

The conflict caused one of the world's largest displacement and humanitarian crises. Millions fled their homes within Sudan or crossed into neighboring countries. Similar mass flight marked the Syrian war. Food insecurity, disease, interrupted health care and restrictions on aid access threatened large portions of the population. Regional and international mediation produced temporary ceasefires but no comprehensive settlement, while external support to the belligerents complicated efforts to end the war.

Background

Sudan's modern history was shaped by long periods of military rule, civil conflict and competition over power and resources. Omar al-Bashir seized power in 1989 and governed for three decades. His regime relied on security services and allied militias, including the Janjaweed, which carried out atrocities in Darfur. The International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for Bashir over alleged crimes in Darfur.

Mass protests beginning in 2018 during the Arab Spring led to Bashir's removal by the military in April 2019. Civilian and military leaders formed a transitional arrangement, but the military retained major power. General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan became head of the Sovereignty Council, while Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as Hemedti, led the RSF and served as deputy. The two military leaders shared authority while competing for influence over the state and its resources.

In October 2021, Burhan and Hemedti jointly led a coup that dissolved the civilian-led government. Protests continued, and negotiations sought a return to civilian rule. A framework agreement signed in December 2022 envisioned integrating the RSF into the regular army and transferring authority to civilians. The timetable, chain of command and duration of integration remained contentious. Tension grew as both forces mobilized around Khartoum.

The RSF had developed from the Janjaweed militia and was formalized as a national paramilitary force in 2013. It expanded its economic and political influence, including through gold mining and overseas operations. The SAF remained the country's regular military institution, with its own commercial networks and command structure. Their parallel power centers made a unified transition difficult.

Course of the war

Outbreak in Khartoum

On 15 April 2023, clashes began in Khartoum and other locations. Each side accused the other of initiating hostilities. The RSF occupied parts of the capital, including residential neighborhoods and areas around strategic sites. The SAF used aircraft and artillery to attack RSF positions. Fighting damaged homes, hospitals, airports and government buildings, and residents faced shortages of water, electricity and food.

Foreign governments evacuated citizens and embassy staff as the security situation deteriorated. A series of short ceasefires, including agreements mediated by Saudi Arabia and the United States in Jeddah, repeatedly failed or were violated. Civilians used pauses in fighting to flee, seek supplies or reach safer districts, but movement remained dangerous.

The SAF retained control of key military installations and used air power, while the RSF relied on mobile units and its presence in urban neighborhoods. Both sides recruited fighters and mobilized allied groups. The struggle for control of Khartoum became protracted, with front lines shifting between districts and critical infrastructure repeatedly damaged.

Expansion to Darfur and other regions

Fighting spread to Darfur, where longstanding ethnic tensions and earlier atrocities shaped the conflict. In El Geneina, West Darfur, armed Arab groups and RSF-linked forces were accused of targeted killings and mass displacement of the Masalit community. Witnesses and human-rights organizations reported executions, sexual violence, looting and attacks on people attempting to flee toward Chad.

Other Darfur cities also experienced violent clashes. The RSF and allied forces gained control of several state capitals, while the SAF maintained positions in some areas. Local armed movements and community defense groups entered the conflict, sometimes shifting alliances. The fragmentation made civilian protection and humanitarian access especially difficult.

In Kordofan and other regions, fighting threatened transport corridors and agricultural areas. The conflict interacted with local grievances and existing armed groups. The war did not remain a contest confined to the two principal commands; tribal networks, former rebel movements and local militias affected control and security in different locations.

Developments in 2024 and later

In early 2024, the SAF made gains in parts of Omdurman and central Sudan, while the RSF retained extensive positions across the capital region and western states. Both sides claimed strategic victories, but the front lines remained fluid. The capture and recapture of towns disrupted supply routes and displaced residents repeatedly.

The RSF's siege of El Fasher, the capital of North Darfur, placed civilians at severe risk. The city hosted displaced families and served as a major humanitarian hub. Fighting around it threatened camps, markets and medical facilities. International organizations warned that an assault could trigger mass civilian casualties and further ethnic violence.

External actors continued diplomatic and military engagement. The United Nations, African Union, regional governments and the United States sought ceasefires and negotiations. Saudi Arabia hosted talks, and neighboring states dealt with refugee flows and cross-border security. The parties continued to contest political legitimacy and conditions for a ceasefire.

Casualties and war crimes

Reliable casualty totals were difficult to establish because fighting restricted access and records were incomplete. Estimates varied, and many deaths were not reported. Civilians were killed by shelling, air strikes, executions and attacks on communities. The actual toll was likely far higher than verified counts.

Investigators documented allegations of war crimes by both sides, including indiscriminate attacks, torture, arbitrary detention and looting. RSF fighters and allied groups were accused of sexual violence and ethnic killings in Darfur. SAF air strikes and artillery attacks struck populated areas. Both sides were accused of recruiting children and obstructing relief operations.

Reports of sexual violence were widespread, including rape and abduction. Survivors often lacked access to medical care, legal protection and safe reporting mechanisms. The breakdown of law enforcement and health services increased impunity and compounded trauma.

The conflict revived fears of mass atrocities in Darfur. The region had suffered a devastating earlier war, and many communities remained displaced or vulnerable. The international community had failed to secure accountability for past crimes, reinforcing concern that perpetrators might act without consequence again.

Foreign involvement

Sudan's location, gold resources and Red Sea access gave the conflict regional significance. Neighboring states worried about instability, refugees and armed groups crossing borders. Egypt maintained close ties with the SAF, while other governments were accused of supporting one side or the other. The belligerents and their allies denied or disputed some allegations of external assistance.

Reports identified arms transfers and logistical support from outside Sudan. The United Arab Emirates was accused by Sudanese officials and investigators of supporting the RSF, allegations it denied. Egypt was viewed as closer to the SAF. Russia-linked networks had prior economic and security relationships in Sudan, while other states pursued access to resources and influence. The evidence and extent of support varied across reports.

External involvement threatened to prolong the conflict by supplying weapons, funds or political backing. Regional diplomacy sought to contain spillover and maintain access to ports and trade routes. The African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) pursued mediation, while the United Nations called for protection of civilians and humanitarian access.

Humanitarian impact

Millions of Sudanese were displaced, making the crisis one of the largest displacement emergencies in the world, comparable in scale to crises in Syria. Many fled to Egypt, Chad, South Sudan, Ethiopia and other neighboring countries. Those remaining inside Sudan often moved repeatedly as combat reached new districts. Refugees faced limited shelter, health care, education and employment.

Food insecurity reached extreme levels. Fighting disrupted planting, harvests and markets, while looting and road closures constrained supplies. Humanitarian agencies warned of famine conditions in some areas. Children and pregnant women faced especially acute risks from hunger and malnutrition.

Hospitals and clinics were damaged, occupied or forced to close because of shortages and attacks. Health workers fled or could not safely reach facilities. Disease outbreaks, including cholera and measles, spread amid limited clean water and vaccination. Power and communications failures further impeded emergency response.

Relief organizations faced bureaucratic restrictions, insecurity and attacks on convoys. Both SAF and RSF were accused of obstructing aid access. Humanitarian workers were killed, detained or threatened. The United Nations and aid agencies repeatedly called for safe corridors and cross-border assistance, but access remained inconsistent.

Analysis

The war reflected a failed transition from military rule to civilian government and the unresolved question of who controlled the armed forces. The SAF and RSF had become rival institutions with independent economic and political power. Integrating the RSF into the national military required agreement on leadership, timing and control, but neither commander trusted the other to surrender authority.

The conflict's geography and social structure also mattered. Sudan's center-periphery disparities, land disputes, competition over gold and agriculture, and histories of ethnic violence shaped local alliances. In Darfur, the RSF's origins and networks connected the national war to earlier campaigns and unresolved grievances. In other areas, regional armed movements pursued their own goals.

Analysts warned that the war risked state collapse and long-term fragmentation. A military victory by either side would not automatically resolve civilian demands for accountable government. Sustainable peace would require security reform, civilian participation, humanitarian recovery and credible accountability for abuses.

Economy

Sudan's economy contracted sharply as fighting paralyzed commerce, banking and public administration. The capital's markets and businesses were looted or closed, and factories and warehouses were damaged. The loss of tax revenue and disruption of trade weakened an already fragile fiscal system.

Agriculture and livestock production were affected by displacement and insecurity. Sudan's role as a regional exporter of agricultural products declined, while food imports became harder to finance and deliver. Gold production and trade continued through networks partly outside formal state oversight, creating incentives for armed actors to maintain control of mines and routes.

Public salaries went unpaid, prices rose and the currency weakened. Millions lost their livelihoods and relied on remittances or humanitarian aid. Rebuilding infrastructure and restoring basic services would require substantial resources and security guarantees.

Disinformation

Both sides used social media and state-linked outlets to frame the conflict, claim victories and accuse opponents of atrocities. Videos and images circulated without reliable context, and old footage was sometimes presented as current. The information environment was difficult to verify because journalists faced danger and communications were disrupted.

Independent Sudanese journalists and citizen reporters documented events despite threats and displacement. International news organizations relied on eyewitness accounts, satellite imagery and humanitarian reporting. Verification remained essential because fabricated claims could inflame ethnic tensions or put civilians at risk.

Sanctions

The United States and other governments imposed sanctions on individuals and entities connected to the belligerents and abuses. Measures targeted companies and networks accused of financing or supplying the forces. Sanctions aimed to raise the cost of continued fighting, but enforcement faced challenges because assets, gold and weapons moved through regional networks.

Sanctions could not replace a political settlement or protect civilians by themselves. Humanitarian groups stressed the need for clear exemptions and channels to prevent restrictions from impeding relief. Diplomatic pressure and accountability efforts remained uneven as governments balanced regional interests with calls to end the war.

In popular culture

Sudanese writers, artists and filmmakers documented the war, displacement and the collapse of daily life. Social media accounts and diaspora publications became important channels for testimony. Cultural expression preserved accounts of neighborhoods, families and communities separated by combat.

The conflict disrupted universities, theaters, museums and archives. Many cultural workers fled the country, while others continued their work amid insecurity. The preservation of Sudan's heritage and public memory became more difficult as museums and historic sites faced damage or looting.