Anfal Campaign

The Anfal campaign was a series of Iraqi military operations against Kurdish communities in northern Iraq, carried out primarily in 1988 during the final stage of the Iran–Iraq War. Iraqi forces destroyed villages, deported civilians, detained residents and executed large numbers of people. The campaign included the use of chemical weapons, most notoriously at Halabja.

Ali Hassan al-Majid, a senior Ba'athist official known as Chemical Ali, directed the operations in northern Iraq. Iraqi authorities treated Kurdish areas as a security zone and accused residents of supporting Iran and Kurdish insurgents. The campaign affected rural populations across several governorates and included mass disappearances, forced relocation and the destruction of thousands of villages.

Death toll estimates vary, ranging from tens of thousands to more than 100,000. After the 2003 overthrow of Saddam Hussein, Iraqi courts convicted senior officials for crimes related to Anfal and classified the campaign as genocide. Human-rights investigations documented systematic atrocities and linked them to the Iraqi government's policy of collective punishment against Kurdish communities.

Background

Iraq's Kurdish population had long sought greater autonomy and political rights. The Iraqi state and Kurdish political movements fought a series of conflicts over governance, territory and oil-rich areas. The 1970 autonomy agreement between Baghdad and Kurdish leaders was not fully implemented, and fighting resumed. Kurdish groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, maintained armed forces and political networks.

When Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, some Kurdish factions cooperated with Iran against Saddam Hussein's government. Baghdad viewed these relationships as a threat during wartime and sought to isolate the border regions. Iraqi forces used collective punishment against villages and families suspected of aiding insurgents. The state also pursued Arabization in contested areas by relocating Kurdish residents and settling Arab families.

Ali Hassan al-Majid was appointed secretary-general of the Northern Bureau of the Ba'ath Party in 1987 and given broad authority over the region. He issued orders classifying certain areas as prohibited zones and directing the removal of residents. The orders authorized lethal force, detention and destruction of property. Government documents later recovered in Iraq provided evidence of planning and command responsibility.

The campaign was named after the eighth chapter of the Quran, which refers to spoils of war. Iraqi officials used the term to describe the military operations. The name became associated with the systematic attack on Kurdish civilians and the destruction of rural life in northern Iraq.

Name

Anfal means “spoils” or “bounty” in Arabic. The term was chosen by the Iraqi government for a military campaign against Kurdish areas. It was used in official orders, military communications and public statements. The name became a shorthand for the entire operation and its broad assault on civilian communities.

Iraqi propaganda presented the campaign as a security operation against insurgents and Iranian influence. Survivors and Kurdish leaders described it as an attempt to destroy their communities and identity. The gulf between official language and the documented treatment of civilians became central to legal findings and historical research.

Summary

The Anfal campaign unfolded in several phases across northern Iraq. Iraqi forces attacked rural districts, captured residents and transported them to detention centers. Many men and boys were separated from women and children and later disappeared. Women, children and older people were moved to camps or settlements under military control.

Authorities destroyed villages and confiscated or demolished homes, wells, livestock and crops. Residents were prevented from returning to prohibited zones. The destruction undermined the economic basis of rural Kurdish communities and made long-term resettlement difficult. Thousands of villages were reported destroyed or emptied.

Chemical weapons were used in multiple locations. Mustard gas and nerve agents caused burns, respiratory damage and death. The Halabja attack killed thousands of civilians in March 1988. Chemical attacks and conventional bombardment were combined with ground operations and forced deportations.

Casualty estimates are uncertain because records were incomplete, bodies were concealed or destroyed, and families were left without information. Human Rights Watch estimated that at least 50,000 and possibly as many as 100,000 Kurds were killed. Other estimates differ. The number of destroyed villages and disappeared people also varies among investigations.

Campaign

First phase and prohibited zones

In 1987, Iraqi authorities issued orders directing residents to leave designated rural areas. The orders classified inhabitants who remained as enemies and authorized lethal force. Government announcements were distributed through military and party channels. Many civilians did not receive clear warnings or had no safe place to go.

The first major operations in 1988 targeted areas controlled by Kurdish factions. Iraqi troops used artillery, aircraft and ground forces to attack villages. Civilians fled toward towns, Iran or remote mountain areas. People captured during the operations were transported to detention facilities, where families were separated.

The government used military and administrative mechanisms together. Security forces registered residents, detained suspected insurgent supporters and controlled movement. Authorities seized property and moved residents into collective settlements. The system made it difficult for families to locate relatives or return to their homes.

Mass arrests and disappearances

During sweeps, Iraqi forces separated adult men and teenage boys from women and children. Many of those detained were transported to desert sites and executed. Their bodies were buried in mass graves. Families received no official accounting and often searched for years for missing relatives.

Women, children and older adults were moved to detention camps and government-controlled settlements. Conditions were poor, with shortages of food, water and medical care. Movement was restricted, and families were separated. Some detainees later returned, but many disappeared or died in custody.

Documents recovered after 2003 included lists of detainees, execution orders and correspondence among senior officials. The records helped identify the scale and organization of the operations. Testimony from survivors and former officials further established how the campaign was coordinated.

Village destruction and chemical attacks

Iraqi forces destroyed settlements across Kurdish areas. Homes, schools, mosques, wells and agricultural infrastructure were demolished. The destruction aimed to prevent insurgents from returning and to remove civilian support networks. The resulting displacement reshaped rural settlement patterns and deprived residents of land and livelihoods.

Chemical weapons were deployed against communities as well as Iranian forces. Survivors described symptoms consistent with mustard gas and nerve agents. The government used aircraft and artillery to deliver chemical munitions. International condemnation did not halt their use during the war.

The attack on Halabja was the most widely known episode. Iranian forces and Kurdish fighters had entered the town, and Iraqi aircraft attacked it with chemical weapons. Thousands of civilians died, and survivors faced severe medical consequences. The attack became a symbol of the wider campaign and a focus of international reporting.

Final phase

The campaign continued through the summer of 1988, as Iraqi forces regained territory and sought to end Kurdish resistance before the ceasefire with Iran. Operations affected several regions and included further deportations and village clearances. Residents who had fled faced insecurity in Iran and were often unable to return.

Iraqi authorities announced an amnesty for some Kurdish fighters in September 1988, but it did not provide a full accounting for civilians already detained or missing. The government maintained control over the region and continued to restrict access to former villages. The end of organized campaigns did not end the suffering of displaced families.

Death toll

No comprehensive official list of victims was produced. Estimates range from tens of thousands to over 100,000. Human Rights Watch's investigation estimated at least 50,000 deaths and considered a figure approaching 100,000 plausible. Other scholars use lower or higher figures based on different periods and definitions.

The uncertainty arises from the scale of the campaign, destruction of records, disappearance of detainees and difficulty locating mass graves. Some deaths occurred during chemical attacks and bombardments; others followed execution or deprivation in detention. The total includes people from many districts and waves of operations.

Survivor testimony, captured Iraqi documents, forensic investigations and mass grave exhumations have contributed to the record. The number of destroyed villages is also disputed, with estimates ranging into the thousands. Regardless of the exact count, evidence shows a systematic campaign of mass killing and forced displacement.

Aftermath

The campaign left Kurdish society with widespread displacement, missing relatives and destroyed settlements. Survivors returned to areas with mines, unexploded ordnance and little infrastructure. Many families resettled in cities or camps. The loss of farmland, livestock and community networks hindered recovery.

After the 1991 Gulf War, an uprising in northern Iraq was followed by the creation of a protected zone and de facto Kurdish autonomy. The region later developed its own political institutions, though disputes with Baghdad over territory, oil and federal powers continued. Anfal remained a defining memory in Kurdish politics and public commemoration.

Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, mass graves were excavated and documents were used in criminal proceedings. Iraqi courts tried Saddam Hussein and senior officials. Saddam was executed in 2006 for the Dujail case; al-Majid was convicted for his role in Anfal and executed in 2010. The trials established legal responsibility but did not resolve every question of justice or compensation.

Trials

The Iraqi High Tribunal heard the Anfal case beginning in 2006. Prosecutors presented government documents, survivor testimony, forensic evidence and expert analysis. Ali Hassan al-Majid and other officials were charged with genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. The court found that the campaign had been organized by senior state officials.

Al-Majid was convicted and sentenced to death. He was executed in January 2010 after additional convictions related to other atrocities. Several other officials received prison or death sentences. The proceedings were criticized by some observers for political interference and shortcomings in due process, while Kurdish survivors viewed the verdict as an important recognition.

Iraqi courts formally recognized the campaign as genocide. National parliaments in several countries also adopted motions recognizing the crimes. Recognition did not automatically provide reparations or comprehensive support to survivors, and efforts to investigate foreign corporate suppliers remained limited.

Sources

Historical knowledge of Anfal comes from survivor accounts, Iraqi government documents, human-rights investigations, court records and forensic work. Human Rights Watch's 1993 report, “Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds,” analyzed captured Iraqi documents and interviewed survivors. The report remains a foundational account of the campaign's structure and victims.

British and American records, news reporting and later scholarly research have contributed additional evidence. Iraqi court proceedings made official documents and testimony part of the public record. Mass grave investigations helped establish patterns of execution and concealment.

Researchers continue to examine casualty totals, local variations and the international supply chain. Differences in estimates do not undermine the core findings that Iraqi forces carried out systematic killings, forced displacement and chemical attacks against Kurdish civilians.

Commemoration

Kurdish communities commemorate Anfal annually and remember victims through memorials, museums and public ceremonies. Families preserve photographs, documents and testimony of missing relatives. The campaign is taught in schools in the Kurdistan Region and remains central to discussions of autonomy and protection from state violence.

The Halabja memorial and museum honor victims of chemical attacks. Survivors and families continue to seek medical care, recognition and compensation. Commemoration also serves as a warning about the consequences of chemical warfare and the danger of international indifference.

Later perspectives

The Anfal campaign is analyzed as genocide by Iraqi courts, human-rights organizations and many scholars. The legal assessment considers the targeting of Kurds as a group, the scale of killings, the destruction of communities and evidence of intent in Iraqi documents and orders. Some governments have formally recognized the genocide.

Debate continues over the precise death toll, the role of foreign suppliers and the extent of international knowledge during the campaign. Iraqi officials used security arguments to justify operations, but the systematic treatment of civilians, mass executions and chemical attacks cannot be explained as ordinary counterinsurgency. The campaign's history remains a central case study in state violence and accountability.